WESTERN RELIGIONS- Notes

WESTERN RELIGIONS

Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Islam are important religions of the world. These religions took birth in West Asia. They are also known as Semitic religions. These religions are spread in many countries of the world. Do you know this? Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Islam are known as religions. ‘Religion’ means ‘the Path of Truth’ revealed to the Prophets by the Creator of this earth. Hence, Prophets, Holy Scriptures and the tenets which guide the practice of these religions act as the pillars of these religions. This assumption is limited only to the above-mentioned religions. JUDAISM A relgion is a set of rules. A religious community is one which has 1. Belief in one God. 2. Belief in the messenger of God. 3. A holy book written by the messenger 4. The community should follow the specific do’s and don’ts of the messenger. 5. Mass prayer to be conducted in a specific place. Judaism is a religion. Their followers are called Jews. Their language is Hebrew. Abraham was the forefather of this religion and Moses was their Messenger.

History of Jews About 3000 years ago in Israel about ten to twelve tribal groups engaged in the continuous fight. Some times they had to fight against the external enemies. It was thought that the religion could bring peace in the community. David defeated Goliath and became the ruler. His son was famous Solomon, the king, who reigned for along period, built a huge temple in his kingdom. The kingdom was split into two after the death of King Solomon in 931 BCE.

The one was Israel and the other Juda. Egyptians and later Assyrians invaded Israel. Jews fled to Juda. They built tents in Jerusalem. Babylonians invaded Israel and won Assyrians. Babylonians completely destroyed the temple. In 538 BCE Achaemenid of Persia invaded Israel. Cyrus, the famous for his benevolent attitude gave back their kingdom, and allowed jews live in peace. Jews were back in their motherland and rebuilt their temple. Torah, their religious texts were also written. Religious teachers made their prominence in this period. Invasion over Jews Alexander, the rular of Macedonia made another attack on Babylonia and defeated them in 334 BCE. Jews were again in troubles. Thus, Israel and Juda were in one or the other trouble. So, they had to flee from place to place and later spread to Europe, Asia, Africa and other parts of the world. Christianity was the later development. Jesus Christ who taught Christianity was a Jew.

The Rise of Isreal The Jewish had fought for their survival throughout. During II world war, Adolf Hitler, the German Dictator, got killed 60 Lakh Jews. After the close of the war, UNO formed Israel as a seperate nation for the jews. Thus, the jews got their motherland after 3000 years. Hebrew Bible also called Old Testament has 3 divisions. Law, writings, and Moses’ writings. Christinity and Islam adopted many of them. Ten rules in Judaism 1. Do not have any other gods. 2. Do not make or worship idols. 3. Do not disrespect or misuse God’s name.

4. Remember the Sabbath and keep it holy. 5. Honour your mother and father. 6. Do not commit murder. 7. Do not commit adultery. 8. Do not steal. 9. Do not tell lies 10. Do not be envious of others. ZOROASTRIANISM Although Zoroastrianism was founded in Persia, it has influenced India. Parsis as they are called, settled in India during Muslim invasion in different periods. Parsis are more in number in India compared to the other parts of the world. Their contribution to the economy, army and freedom movement is worth remembering. Zoroastrianism (Parsi religion) was founded by Zarthustra in 6 B.C. Zarathustra was an Iranian prophet and a religious reformer. They worshipped Sun and more similar to the Vedic rituals and practices. The holy book ‘Zend Avestha’ contains Shlokas called “Gatha”. The rituals related to worship is named Yashna(Yajna). They were followed to praise gods. This seems all these concepts came from Sanskrit. The religions Judaism, Islam and Christianity were influenced by Zoroastrianism. With the invasion of Alexander of Macedonia, the religion suffered. They destroyed Zend Avestha. Later it was re-written. Beliefs: Goodness will be victorious over the evil in their competition. Man should choose goodness. Their God was AhurMezda. Fasting, celibacy and cleanliness are some of their practices. CHRISTIANITY The birthplace of Jesus is Bethlehem, 5 kilometers away from Jerusalem in Judea province. He was the only son of the poor couple, Joseph and Mary.

Not much is known about his early life. Jesus knew Aramic and Semetic languages. At this time, the Jews were awaiting the arrival of a Messiah, who would save them from their problems. A person named John had predicted this arrival. John was basically a religious preacher. He used to baptise the people who came to him. Even Jesus was baptised by John. John declared Jesus as the Messiah. Jesus was 30 years at that time. Jesus started travelling through Isreal preaching religious philosophy. Over a period of time, Jews chose Jesus as their religious leader. Jesus had 12 disciples. They are called ‘Apostles’. Peter was the first apostle. Jesus sympathised with the downtrodden and those who suffered from diseases. He always came forward to alleviate the suffering of the poor. Crucifixion of Christ The Jews considered Jesus as their Messiah and he became very popular. Since Jesus began rejecting the religious dogmas, Jewish fundamentalists started opposing him. Due to all these reasons, when Jesus visited Jerusalem, the Jewish soliders arrested him and handed him over to the Governor of Rome and he ordered crucifixion of Jesus. He was crucified on the hillock of Golgotha by the Roman soldiers. The teachings of Jesus Christ The preachings of Jesus Christ are very simple to follow. They are told in the form of stories or parables. 

1. He told people to imagine God as their Father. He also told that all human beings were Children of the God. The concept of God is different from “Brahma” in Sanathana Dharma. Jesus Chri 2. He advocated universal brotherhood. 3. He told people to shun hypocritical religious practices. 4. He advised people to repent for their sins and seek forgiveness from the God. 5. He asked people to do unto others what they wanted others to do to them. 6. He equated Service to Man with Service to God. In this manner, his preachings were based on Love, Service and Brotherhood. The Spread of Christianity After the crucifixion of Jesus, his disciples were tortured. Some of them were crucified. During the time of Emperor Constantine, Christianity was adopted as the State Religion. Subsequently, Christianity spread through out Europe. Today, Christian Churches are found through out the world and have a large number of followers. The Bible is their Scripture. ISLAM RELIGION Muhammad, The Prophet is the founder of Islam Religion. He was born at Mecca in C.E.570 Abdulla and Ameena were his parents. His father died a few months before Mohammad’s birth. He lost his mother when he was six year old. Thereafter, he grew up under the care of his uncle, who was basically a trader. He had to travel long distances for his trade. Mohammad used to accompany him during these travels. After some time, Mohammad was employed to service in a rich widow’s house. Later, he married that widow. They had two sons and four daughters. Mecca @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 6 Mohammad had the habit of introspecting and meditating all alone. He used to meditate in a cave in Mecca. Once, while he was meditating, he heard the voice of an angel. The angel said that Mohammad was the Prophet of God (Allah). Later, Mohammad convinced his family members, relatives and friends that he was truly the Prophet. However, he never referred himself as God, but Prophet of Allah. The rest of his life Mohammad spent preaching the Divine Gospel. These preachings were compiled by his followers and published in the form of a book. Quran is the Scripture of Islam. The orthodox community of Mecca began to oppose the Prophet. Due to this, Muhammad, the Prophet could not preach in Mecca any more. In the year C.E. 622 he travelled from Mecca to Medina. This journey became popular in history as ‘Hijira’. He settled down for some time in Medina. He brought many small tribes of Arabia together. As a result, his strength doubled. He moved to Mecca again with his followers and after some years, breathed his last there. Philosophy and tenets of Islam (the teachings of Muhammad, the Prophet) : 1. Islam believes in monotheism (worship of one God). Allah is their God and Mohammed, His Prophet. 2. Muhammad, The Prophet taught that there is no death for the soul and that sinners would attract punishment by fire. 3. He laid emphasis on good behaviour. He said that human beings should try to learn forgiveness. The rules and regulations to be followed by every Muslim : 1. Firm belief in one God and Mohammed as his Prophet - Kalima 2. Praying five times daily facing the direction of Kaba - Namaz 3. Fasting during the Ramzan month from sunrise to sunset - Roja 4. Donating one-fourths of their earnings to the poor - Zakat 5. Visiting Mecca at least once in their lifetimes - Haj These five practices are said to be the ‘pillars of Islam’. Please Note : (BCE - refer to before common era) Wherever BCE is not mentioned it is CE-Common era @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 7 The successors of Muhammad, The Prophet are called ‘Caliphs’. The Caliphs became the religious and political leaders of Islam. Abubakar was the first Caliph. EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. 1. The founder of Judaism _________________. 2. The founder of Zoroastrianism _________________. 3. The birthplace of Jesus Christ is ________________. 4. Christ was crucified on the hillock _______________. 5. Christianity became the state religion of Rome during the period of _________________. 6. Muhammad, the Prophet was born at __________________. 7. The scripture of Islam is ______________. 8. The successors of Muhammad, the Prophet are known as ______________. II. Answer the following questions by discussing with your friends. 1. List down the teachings of Judaism. 2. Write about the teachings of Zoroastrianism. 3. Write about life of Jesus Christ. 4. List the teachings of Jesus Christ. 5. How was christianity spread ? 6. Write a note on the life of Muhammad, the Prophet. 7. What is ‘Hijra’? 8. What are the rules of Islam? III. Activities : 1. Visit a church and a mosque in your town/village and collect information about their religious celebrations. 2. Visit a Parsi temple. 3. Learn about the cultural activities of Muslims. IV. Project : 1. Write an essay about the spread of Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity and Islam with the help of your teachers. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 8 CHAPTER – 2 INDIA FROM 6TH TO 14TH CENTURY We learn about the folowing in this chapter, • The Rajputs and Karkota dynasties ruled in North India from 6th to 14th century and their contributions. • Karkota Dynasty of Kashmir • The consequences of the attacks of Mahmood Ghazni and Mohammed Ghori • The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate, their administration and their contributions Certain dynasties ruled between 6th and 14th centuries in India. After the Vardhanas, Rajputs and Karkota dynasties ruled in North India. Subsequently, Mohammed Ghazni, Mohammed Ghori and the Delhi Sultans ruled over many parts of India. RAJPUTS (6th to 12th Century) Gurjara Pratihars, Garhwalas, Paramars, Chouhans, Solankis and Chandela Rajput families ruled in North India. They have contributed a lot to literature, art and architecture. Gurjara Pratihars : Harichandra started the Gurjara dynastic rule. His four sons ruled the different branches of Pratihars at Jodhpur, Nandipur, Broach and Ujjain. Among these, Nagabhatta who ruled Ujjain was prominent and successful in facing the Arab invasion. He extended his territory upto some portions of Rajputan, beyond Gujarat and Malwa. Another prominent king, Mihir Bhoj, defeated Narayanpala of the Palas and expanded his kingdom. The Arab travellers, Suleiman and Al Masood visited his court. After Mahendra Pala and Mahipala, this dynasty began to decline. Garhwalas : The founder of this dynasty was Chandradeva. He conquered a vast area of North India. Govindachandra was another famous king of this dynasty. He not only seized Magadha and Malwa from the Palas but also fought with Kalinga rulers and expanded his @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 9 kingdom as far as Orissa. He had good diplomatic relations with the Kashmir, Gujarat and Chola kings. Paramaras : Upendra Krishna Raja was the founder of this dynasty. Their capital was Dhara of Malwa. King Shiyak of this dynasty defeated Kottiga II of the Rashtrakutas and freed himself from his feudatory position. He constructed many tanks and temples. Dhananjaya, Bhatta Halayuddha, Dhanika and Padmagupta were the scholars in his court. Chauhans : This dynasty was the most Prithviraj Chauhan prominent among the Rajput dynasties. Prithviraj Chouhan who hailed from Ajmer, was the most famous king of this dynasty. He defeated Chandela kings of Bundelkhand. He defeated Mohammed Ghori in the first battle of Terrain but lost in the second battle of Terrain because of the treachery of Jayachandra. Due to this, he lost his kingdom of Delhi to Mohammed Ghori. Prithviraj Chouhan was known for his bravery and adventurous nature, and he was commemorated in the Hindi epic, ‘Prithvirajaraso’. Some of his unwise decisions led to his downfall. Solankis : Mularaja I was the founder of this dynasty. Bheemaraya I was the famous king of this dynasty. During his rule, Mohammed Ghazni attacked the Somnath Temple of Gujarat. Since he could not resist the attack of Mohammed Ghazni, Bheemaraya I handed over the power to his son Karnadeva. During this dynastic rule the famous Jain scholar Hemachandra, wrote a dictionary in Prakrit language called ‘Deshinamamala’. Mularaja II defeated Mohammed Ghori near Mount Abu. Subsequently, Allauddin Khilji’s commanders Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan defeated Karnadeva and took over this province. Chandelas : After the decline of Paramars, Chandelas established their kingdom. They were the feudal kings of Pratihars. Dhanga was the famous king of this dynasty. He declared himself free from the @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 10 Pratihars and occupied the eastern portion of their kingdom. He defeated the Palas and the Adras and expanded his kingdom. He gave military assistance to Hindu Shahi king Jayapala against Muslims. He was bestowed the title ‘Maharajadhiraja’. During his rule Bhavabhooti wrote the poetic works ‘Malati Madhava’, ‘Uttara Ramacharitha’ and ‘Mahavira Charitha’ in Sanskrit. The king Dhanga was a scholar himself and had a number of scholars. His kingdom was taken over by the Khilji sultans. Hatred and lack of unity among the Rajput kings led to their decline. The contributions of Rajputs The Rajputs were Kshatriyas and brave warriors. They celebrated many Hindu festivals. During their rule, women enjoyed equal status with men. Sati and johar practices were prevalent in this period. Swayamvar marriages were common in royal families. The Rajput women were proud and brave. Women were well-versed in literature, dance, music, painting and embroidery. The Rajput kings encouraged scholars and there by have contributed a lot to the field of literature. The Rajput kings Bhoja and Munja were scholars themselves. King Munja had poets Padmagupta and Halayudha in his court. During the rule of Bhojaraja great Jain scholars like Shantisena, Prabhachandrasuri and Ghanapala enjoyed his patronage. Great poetic works like ‘Gita Govinda’ of Jayadeva, ‘Kiratarjuniya’ of Bharavi, Ravanavadha of Bharthrahari, Kavyameemamsa of Mahendrapala were written in this period. Dramas like ‘Balaramayana’ and ‘Karpuramanjari’ of Rajasekhara, ‘Mahavira Charita’ and ‘Uttara Ramacharita’ of Bhavabhuti, historical works like ‘Rajatarangini’ of Kalhana, ‘Prithvirajavijaya’ of Jayanika and ‘Kumarapalacharita’ of Hemachandra are the significant works of this period. ‘Prithvirajaraso’ was written by Chand Bardai and ‘Bhoja prabandha’ was written by Ballala. During this period Gujarati, Rajasthani and Hindi languages saw lot of development. The Rajput kings encouraged the educational centers of Nalanda, Banaras, Vikramashila and Ujjain. Art and Architecture The Rajput kings constructed massive forts at Chittoda, Mandu, @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 11 Ranathambore, Jodhpur and Gwalior in North India. The palaces of Jaipur, Gwalior and Udaipur, Mount Abu basadi and Dilawar temple at Mount Abu, Vimalavasai, Lunavasai temples are artistic architectural constructions. The Chandelas built the famous Khajuraho and Khandaraya temple at Madhya Pradesh. Shiva and Vishnu temples were prominent constructions during their time. They encouraged painting too. Their style of painting is called ‘Rajasthani’ and ‘Pahari’ schools of paintings. The Rajasthani style of painting can be seen at Mewar, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Bhuni. Pahari style of painting can be seen at Khasoli, Jammu and Garhwal. Do you know this ? Rajput traditions : Swayamvar : In ancient times, there was the practice of a princess selecting one of the princes as her husband from the invited princes. Rakshabandhan : Rajput ladies tied bands on the wrists of male members and treated them like brothers. Such men treated them as sisters and protected them. KARKOTA EMPIRE OF KASHMIR (625-855) The Indian King who extended his kingdom as far as the Caspian Sea, victorious over modern Iran, administered towards the east – Bengal, developed friendship with the Rashtrakutas and the kings of northern China. Truly! Yes. Unbelievable. It was possible to the great King Lalithaditya Muktapida of Karkota of Kashmir. Founded in 625 by Raja Durlabhavardhana, Karkota was one of the strongest of empires of India. Baladithya of Gonanda dynasty made his son-in-law heir to the throne. He married off his another daughter @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 12 Anangalekha to Durlabhavardhana. After the death Baladithya, Durlabhavardhana continued to rule. His dynasty came to be known as Karkota. His son Durlabhaka ( Prathapaditya) married Narendraprabha and got three sons- Chandrapeeda (Vajraditya), Tarapeeda (Udayaditya) and Muktapeeda (Lalithaditya). Lalithaditya ruled for 36years. He extended the empire to all the four directions. Kabul Turkey Shahis Srinagar Kannauj Kanyakubja Magadha The Kingdom of Tufan THE KINGDOM OF KARKOTA (8TH CENTURY CE) Small Tribal States The Arabs Province of Sindh Lalithaditya Muktapeeda Lalithaditya Muktapeeda: We get details about him in Kalhana’s Rajatarangini. Al-Beruni’s Tariq-e-hind also praises the adventures of Lalithaditya. We find his references in many Chinese historical works. Lalithaditya was a born brave, courageous and ambitious. He defeated Yashovarma of Kanauj. He laid his supremacy over Kabul by defeating Shahi dynasty. He was friendly with the rulers Vindyachala, the Rashtrakutas and extended his influence to Bengal. He fought with Tibet and made some provinces independent. Thus, Karkota dynasty included Uzbekistan, Tajakistan, Krigistan and Kajakistan and Kabul. With such a vast expansion that they had, that even Arabs and Turks could not lay siege over them, could rule for nearly 300 years. Contributions to Art: During their span of 230 years (625-855) Karkota Kingdom had their influence in the Himalayas and Mid- @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 13 Asia. Bay of Bengal on the east, Vindyachala on the south, Caspian Sea on the west, and Tibet on the north were the borders. Shaivas, Buddhists and Sanathana Dharmiyas had equal respects in the kingdom. Lalithapeeda himself built Stupas. He also built Marthanda Surya temple. It was built in such a manner as floating magnificant the lake. They were Surya worshippers. Their capital was Paraspore or Parihasapura. The age of Karkotas was considered the age of Shaiva Siddantha. Shaivasuthra was written by Vasugupta. Great philosopher and poet, Abhinavagupta belonged to this period. Thrika and Koula traditions developed during this period. It was a golden era in the history of Kashmir. Kalhana was the court poet of Lalithaaditya. Downfall: Kings after Lalithaditya, were not powerful. Kuvalya peeda, the son of Lalithaditya, having dejected towards life, left his palace in search of peace and attained Moksha, says Rajatarangini. Vajraditya was neither clever nor brave to fight enemies from Sindh. Prithivyapeeda, Jayaapeeda, Sangramapeeda were weak. The dynasty met its downfall. AFGHAN INVADERS Mahamood Ghazni : (997 – 1030) Alaptigin, the Turkish slave established an independent kingdom at Ghazni. Mahmood Ghazni invaded India 17 times and looted a lot of wealth. He defeated Multan king, Raja Jaipala, Bhimapala and Chandela King Raja Trilochanapala. He attacked Nagarakote, Thaneswar, Gwalior and Ujjain cities. Mahmood Ghazni attacked the famous Somnath temple of Gujarat with a huge army and plundered the great wealth therein after destroying the Shivalinga. Mahmood Ghazni’s invasions of India led to subsequent invasions by Turks. Mahmood Ghazni encouraged poets, scholars and the fine arts. A scholar in his court, Alberuni, wrote the famous ‘Tarik-ul-hind’. Indian lifestyle and knowledge have been discussed in this work. Mohammed Ghori (1149-1206) Mahamood Ghazni failed to establish Turkish rule in India, Mohammed Ghori continued this effort. Ambitious of expanding his kingdom, @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 14 Mohammed Ghori started his invasions through Multan in India. After conquering the province of Multan, he invaded Anilwada of Gujarat. He failed in this effort. Undeterred, he invaded Peshawar part of Punjab. Later, after wresting Lahore from Khusro Malik, he became very powerful in Punjab. Peshawar became his military headquarters. He tried to invade adjacent areas of Delhi and Ajmer, and lost to Rajput king, Prithiviraj Chouhan in the first battle of Terrain. In the second battle of Terrain, he defeated Prithviraj. The commander of Ghori, Qutubuddin Aibak, took control of Delhi and defeated many Rajput kings in the Ganga plains and expanded Ghori’s kingdom. In this manner, the Turkish rule began in North India. Mohammed Ghori appointed his trusted servant Qutubuddin Aibak to look after his administration in India. Lack of unity among Rajput rulers in India led to expansion of Ghori’s kingdom. DELHI SULTANATE (1206 – 1526 ) Ghulam, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayed and Lodhi dynasties ruled Delhi. GHULAM DYNASTY Qutubuddin Aibak continued his rule in India. Since Aibak and his successors were all slaves, their dynasty came to be known as Ghulam dynasty. Qutubuddin Aibak Qutubuddin Aibak laid a solid foundation for the Delhi Sultanate rule in India. Qutubuddin who belonged to Turkish dynasty of Afghanistan, was sold to the Khaji of Nishapur by his guardians. In addition to Persian and Arabic language education, Aibak had the Qutub Minar Do you know this? Qutub Minar is the tallest tower in India. It is located in Delhi. The construction was started by Qutubbuddin Aibak and completed by Iltamush. It is 225 ft. in height with delicate carvings. There are 5 floors in the building with steps leading to them. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 15 training in archery, horse riding and warfare. The Governor of Ghazni, Mohammed Ghori, bought him as a slave. Aibak, during his stay at Ghazni, attracted the attention of Mohammed Ghori by his bravery. After the II war of Terrain, he supervised the invasions of India. During the period of Mohammed Ghori, Aibak became his successor in North India. After Ghori, he ruled as an independent king. In order to consolidate his position, on assuming power, he had marital relations with Iltamush and Nasiruddin Kabaccha. In addition to this he married the daughter of Tajuddin Yeldoj. While Nasiruddin and Tajuddin were Mohammed Ghori’s slaves, Iltamush was Aibak’s slave. Aibak constructed Quwat-ul-Islam mosque in Delhi. He began the construction of Qutub Minar in Delhi. There were the scholars, Nizami and Faq-E-Mudabbeer in his court. A work called ‘Tajul Masir’ gives all information about Aibak. Iltamush Iltamush belonged to the family of ‘Ilbari’ and was Qutubbuddin Aibak’s slave. He was Gwalior’s administrator and later became Aibak’s successor. Unable to tolerate the progress of Iltamush, the Ghazni king Tajuddin Yeldoj and, Sindh’s Nasiruddin Kabacha revolted against him. After defeating them and consolidating his position, Iltamush conquered Ranathambore, Mandora, Gwalior, Bhilsa, Ajmer, Benares and Kanauj. For the first time, the Mongol Emperor Chengiz Khan invaded India. Iltamush successfully forced them to retreat. As a result of these achievements, the Khalif of Baghdad honoured Iltamush with a letter bestowing administrative power. Iltamush divided his kingdom into provinces (ikta) and to oversee the administration, appointed provincial officers (iktadars). He appointed a group of 40 Sardars to advise him in the matters of administration and justice. The Prime Minister and the judges were advisors to the Sultan. Iltamush brought gold and silver coins into circulation. He completed the construction of Qutub Minar which was started in Qutubuddin Aibak’s time. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 16 Razia Sultan Since Iltamush’s son Ruknuddin Feroze was incompetent, his daughter Razia Begum became his successor. She was the first woman to ascend the throne of Delhi. She earned the title of ‘Sultana’ and participated in military activities by wearing a man’s dress. She expanded her kingdom from Sindh to Bengal. Envious of her prosperity, the provincial officers revolted against her and killed her. Ghiyas Uddin Balban Balban was Iltamush’s slave and was a member of the ‘Turkish group of slaves’ by his loyalty, intelligence and good qualities. In the court of Razia Sultana, he was appointed as Amir-E-Shikhar. He controlled the disobedient Turkish sardars. He thwarted the Mongolian attack and established peace and order in the kingdom. He brought tradition and discipline in the court. He used to wear ostentatious Persian style of clothes. He declared himself a representative of the God and brought absolute monarchy into practice. Under the leadership of experienced and trustworthy commanders, he reconstituted his army. He took back the land from those who did not pay service tax for the land they had received as jahagir (gift). To repel the attack of Mongols, he constructed forts in the northwest direction of Delhi. After the decline of the able Balban, the Sultan Qaiqubad got assassinated by his minister. With that, the Slave dynasty ended. KHILJI DYNASTY (1290 – 1320) Khilji dynasty was established by Jalaluddin. He was soft-spoken and merciful. This emboldened his sardars (lieutenants) to conspire against him. Later, he was killed by Allauddin who became the Sultan of Delhi. Allauddin Khilji : Allauddin Khilji grew up under the protection of Jalaluddin. As a brave soldier, he served as the governor and commander. As a commander-in-chief, he looted vast wealth in the attacks on Malwa, Bhilsa and Devagiri. This helped him to plot and murder his guide and mentor, Jalaluddin. Thus Allauddin became the Sultan of Delhi. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 17 Allauddin not only resisted Mongol attack but also defeated many of the kings in North and South India and plundered a lot of wealth. He defeated the kings of Waghela dynasty, the Rajput king Karnadeva II, Ranathambore’s Hamirdeva and Raja Bhimsingh of Chittor. In addition to this, he conquered Malwa, Jalore, Bundi, Mandore and Tonk. His commander Malik Kafur invaded South India and looted the rich wealth. He invaded Devagiri, Warangal, Dwarasamudra and Madurai became the cause for their destruction. He did not merge these provinces with his kingdom but only looted their wealth. His third son, Qutubuddin Mubarak, ruled for four years and was killed by a soldier called Khusro. Later, Ghazi Malik (Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) assassinated Khusro and established Tughlaq dynasty. Administrative reforms : Allauddin Khilji brought about many reforms in the administration. He abolished religious endowments, inams (gifts), land and subsidy. He established efficient intelligence network. He abolished consumption of alcohol, drugs and gambling. He also banned social gatherings of his lieutenants, their socialization with the public and inter-caste marriages. He directed his lieutenants to collect heavy tax from the public. Military reforms : The appointment and Do you know this? Doab : The land between two rivers is called Do-ab. Ex.GangaYamuna Doab. training of soldiers, arms and ammunitions, horses and payment of salary was the responsibility of the Defence Minister. Records of soldiers and their horses were maintained systematically. He brought in the practice of stamping of horses. He built forts at starategic places. Economic reforms : He fixed the price of essential commodities like pulses and cereals, edible oil, sugar, salt, cloth and others with a minimum profit. He directed the traders to sell products at controlled rates. He appointed a higher officer called “Sahana-E-Mandi” to control the markets. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 18 TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320 TO 1399.) Ghiyasuddin established the Tughlaq dynasty. Mohammed bin Tughlaq and Feroze Tughlaq were prominent in this dynasty. Ghiyasuddin established peace and order in Delhi through liberal administrative practices. He strengthened the borders of his kingdom to stall the invasion by Mongols. He constructed irrigation canals and reduced land tax on farmers. He started the postal system through horsemen and foot-soldiers. He constructed the famous court of Tughlaqabad near Delhi. He conquered Warangal and Madurai. Later, he established peace and order in Gujarat and Bengal. Mohammad bin Tughlaq Mohammad bin Tughlaq was well-versed in Persian and Arabic languages. In spite of his vast knowledge, he had many flaws in his character. He lacked common sense, understanding, tolerance, mental balance, farsightedness and ability to take pragmatic decisions. Administrative reforms : Revenue reforms : He compiled a detailed record of land taxes pertaining to land holdings. He established the Department of Agriculture. Uncultivated land was utilized for farming and other purposes. He rendered financial help to the farmers. He increased the taxes in Do-ab areas. Shifting of his capital : Mohammad bin Tughlaq shifted his capital from Delhi to Devagiri in Madhya Pradesh. The main purpose of this exercise was to locate the capital in the centre of the kingdom and also ensure protection from invasion by outsiders. Though his idea was good, inability to make suitable arrangements for the implementation resulted in innumerable people suffering a lot of problems. Practice of symbolic coins: Mohammad bin Tughlaq had gold and silver coins made according to the prevailing price. He brought into circulation gold coins called ‘dinar’ and silver coins called ‘adali’. He had them artistically structured. After some years, he brought in copper and brass symbolic coins into circulation. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 19 Minting of coins was not the monopoly of the government. Thus, when even common people began minting coins, chaos resulted. Expensive administrative practices, severe famine, shifting of the capital and its re-shifting emptied the coffers of the kingdom. Deccan Policy: Mohammad bin Tughlaq carried on his administration in the areas he had conquered in the Deccan. He took over Warangal of the Kakatiya’s and vanquished the capital of the Hoysalas, Dwarasamudra. He conquered Madurai in South India and appointed Jalaluddin Hasansha as the governor for its administration. In this manner, Mohammad bin Tughlaq became the first of the Delhi Sultans to establish his vast empire in India. Mohammad bin Tughlaq assembled a very large army without any farsightedness. As he did not try to expand his empire by invasions, he caused a heavy loss to the state exchequer. During the last 11 years of his rule, there were about 27 rebellions in South India which led to the rise of Vijayanagar and Bahamani kingdoms. After the decline of Mohammad bin Do this yourself : List and compare the administrative departments in present-day Karnataka and during the period of the Delhi Sultans. Tughlaq, Firoze Shah Tughlaq took up many projects for the welfare of his subjects. With a view of helping the subjects, he waived the takkavi loans. He paid compensation to the people who had suffered during Mohammad bin Tughlaq’s rule. He abolished about 20 taxes. Private mines and irrigation facilities were taxed. He constructed cities, mosques, madrasas, dams and canals. The main cities which he built were Jonpur, Fatehbad, Hissar, Firozepur and Firozabad. Jonpur was a famous center for learning. He built choultries for the benefit of tourists and travelers. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 20 SAYYED DYNASTY (1414 – 1451) After conquering Delhi, the governor of Multan, Khizarkhan Sayyed, established his rule in Do-ab, Bian and Gwalior. He suppressed the rebels and established peace and order. Mohammad Shah, Allauddin and Alam Shah were the prominent rulers of this dynasty. Alam Shah was defeated by Bahulol Lodhi, thus putting an end to the Sayyed dynasty rule. LODHI DYNASTY (1451 – 1526) This is the last Sultanate to rule Delhi. Bahulol Lodhi, Sikander Lodhi and Ibrahim Lodhi were the sultans of this dynasty. Sikander Lodhi conquered Bihar, Bengal, Dholpur and Chanderi kingdoms. He established peace and order in Delhi. His successor, Ibrahim Lodhi was incompetent. His governors, Alam Khan and Daulat Khan, invited the Afghans to invade India. Thus, Babar invaded India and in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, defeated Ibrahim Lodhi and established Moghul Rule. The Contributions of the Delhi Sultanate Administrative system : The Delhi Sultans, being dictatorial, were Commandants of their Armies and the Chief Justices too. The Sultan’s rule was according to the doctrines of the Quran. The Sardars, Amirs and Ulemas had their influence in the administration. In the central administration, there were Defence Ministry, Foreign Ministry, Postal Department, Charity and Endowment Boards. They were headed by ministers and officials. The kingdom was divided into many provinces. The administrative centers were headed by Shikdar, Amin and Chowkidars. Collection of revenue, establishment of peace, education facility and maintenance of cleanliness were their main responsibilities. During the Sultan’s rule, kharaj (land tax), zakhat, ushr, khums (tax on plundered wealth) and jaziya, tax on property without heirs, import duty, house tax and others were the main sources of income. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 21 There were officials for collection of taxes. Qazis helped Sultans in dispensing justice in provinces and towns. Social system: There were religious restrictions on Hindu and Shia subjects under the rule of the Sultans. Only Muslim sardars were appointed to high posts. The Sultans had appointed Hindu Revenue officials and clerks to help them in the administration. Skilled craftsmen and architects were appointed to help in construction of buildings. Slavery flourished during the reign of the Sultans. Prisoners of war were made slaves. There were many female slaves in the palace. Women did not enjoy good status. Purdah system and child marriage were in practice. Upper class women were well-versed in fine arts. Rural womenfolk were engaged in agriculture and household activities. Economic system: People were taxed heavily. Since transportation facility was not good, taxes were not uniform. Agriculture was the main source of income. The Sultans owned factories in Delhi. Manufacture of gold and silver jewellery, embroidery, textiles and dyeing were the major industries. Literature: Foreign writers and historians enjoyed the patronage of the Sultan. Their works are in Arabic and Persian languages. Mohammad Ghazni’s court had a famous scholar called Alberuni. He was a philosopher, mathematician, geographer and writer. He wrote a book called ‘Tariq-ul-Hind’ dealing with Indian social, economic and religious topics. A scholar called Utbi wrote ‘ Tariq-E-Yamini in Arabic. Hasan Nijami wrote ‘Tajul Masir’, Minhaj-us-siraj wrote ‘Tabakhal-E-Nasiri’. Amir Khusro wrote six prominent works giving details about Hindu and Muslim culture. He was called ‘The Parrot’ of India. Ziauddin Barani wrote ‘Tariq-E-Firozeshahi’ and Firoze Tughlaq wrote ‘Futuhat-E-Firozeshahi’. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 22 Alai Darwaza Khuwat-ul-Islam Mosque Art and Architecture: The Delhi Sultans introduced a new style of architecture known as ‘Indo-Islamic’. Arches, domes and minarets form the main features of this style. The Delhi sultans constructed forts, mosques, palaces, public buildings, madrasas and choultries. Examples of Indo-Islamic style are: Kuwat-ul-Islam mosque, Qutub Minar, Alai Darwaza and Jamait Khana mosques at Delhi. EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. 1. The founder of Gurjara-Pratihara Rajput dynasty was _______. 2. Prithviraj Chauhan defeated ________________ in the first battle of Terrain. 3. The chief commander of Mohammad Ghori was ___________. 4. The first woman to rule among the Delhi Sultans was _____________________. 5. The famous Sultan of the Khilji dynasty was ____________. 6. The capital was shifted from Delhi to ________________ during the rule of the Tughlaq. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 23 II. Answer the following questions. 1. Explain the contributions of the Rajput kings in the field of literature. 2. List the important rulers of Karkotas of Kashmir. 3. Describe in brief the administrative system under Iltamush. 4. What are the administrative reforms of Allauddin Khilji? 5. What are the administrative reforms brought in practice by Mohammad bin Tughlaq? 6. Give an example for the contributions of the Delhi Sultans to art and architecture. 7. What was the result of the First Battle of Panipat? III. Activities : 1. Identify the Rajput kingdoms in a map of India. 2. Mark the places of Ahom Kindom on a map of India. IV. Project : With the help of your teacher, collect pictures and information about the monuments constructed by the Delhi Sultans and prepare an album. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 24 CHAPTER – 3 RELIGIOUS REFORMERS OF INDIA We learn about the following in this chapter, • India’s religious reformers and their philosophy and teachings. • The life and teachings of Shankaracharya, Madhvacharya, Ramanujacharya and Basavanna. • The principles of Adwaita, Vishistadwaita, Dwaita, and Shakti Vishistadwaita. During the 9th century, there were many castes, traditions and philosophies in India . Famous religious reformers propogated the ancient Hindu way of life in their own ways. As a result of this, Bhakti Panth or the Path of Devotion came into existence. Religious reformers are a proof of the abundant religious philosophical wealth and freedom of expression among Hindus. Between 9th to 14th century, religious leaders like Shankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Madhwacharya and Basaweshwara instituted religious reforms which led to an intellectual revolution. Shankaracharya Shankaracharya was born in the village Shankaracharya Kaladi in Kerala in a Namboodari Brahmin family. His father was Shivaguru and mother Aryamba. Shankara was very intelligent. At the age of seven, he had mastered all the Scriptures. He learnt Vedas and the Puranas from his teacher, Govinda Bhagavatpada. Shankaracharya studied the Upanishads and Brahmasutras in depth and propagated the Advaitha philosophy. According to this, Brahma is the absolute truth, the rest of the world is false. The soul is one with Brahma, and life is not separate from Brahma. The world is maya, an illusion; Brahma is the absolute truth. People are ignorant; they are not aware of the illusionary nature of the world. They are @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 25 also not aware that Brahma is the only Truth. Hence we should go on the path of knowledge, and realize the nature of the world. Ultimately, we should merge our ‘atma’ (soul) with the absolute truth, Brahma. Only then we can attain moksha (liberation). In this manner, Shankaracharya taught the path of knowledge. The human soul has no separate existence and he expressed this fact in the phrase ‘Aham Brahmasmi’. He declared that Brahma is Truth. It has no qualities, no features and no shape (nirguna, nirakara, nirvikara). The works of Shankaracharya : Shankarabhasya, Anandalahari, Soundaryalahari, Shivanandalahari, Vivekachoodamani, Prabuddasudhakara and Dakshinamurthy stotra. His hymn Bhajagovindam is world famous. Shankaracharya travelled from Kanyakumari to Kashmir on foot and propagated his Advaitha philosophy. In order to spread the message of his philosophy, he established peethas (institutions) in all the four directions. The four mutts or peethas are : 1. Badarinath - Jyotirpeeth 2. Dwaraka - Kalikapeeth 3. Puri - Govardhan Peeth 4. Sringeri - Sharadapeeth Shankaracharya gave Indian thinking a new direction and inspiration. Ramanujacharya Ramanujacharya was born in Ramanujacharya Sriperumbadur near Chennai. His father was Keshavasomayaji and mother Kantimati. He learnt the Vedas and Upanishads from Yadavaprakasha in Kanchi – the famous educational center in South India. Subsequently, he travelled to Srirangam and became the Peethadheesha of that mutt. The Shaivite Chola king troubled Ramanujacharya @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 26 repeatedly. At that time, the Hoysala king of Karnataka, Vishnuvardhan invited him to Karnataka. Ramanujacharya travelled to Melukote and established the Cheluvanarayanaswamy temple. Ramanujacharya showed keen interest in teaching the mukti marga to common people. After settling down at Sriranga, Ramanujacharya studied the Scriptures and wrote many books. He wrote Vedanta Sangraha, Vedantasara, Vedanta Deepika, Shribhasya and in his famous work ‘Geethabhashya’, he emphasized the importance of devotion. Ramanujacharya’s philosophy is called ‘Vishitadvaita’ and the religion he propagated is called ‘Shrivaishnavism’. Hence, his followers are called Shrivaishnavites. Ramanujacharya taught that life and nature were controlled by Brahma. Atma and Paramatma cannot exist at the same time. Devotion and surrender (prapatti) were essential for attaining moksha. Ramanujacharya condemned casteism and taught the path of devotion to people of all castes. He advised that we should giveup our desires and surrender to God. He advocated attainment of nirvana through the path of devotion. Saint Ramananda and Rayidasa of North were influenced by his philosophy. As a result, the path of devotion or Bhakti marga became popular in North India too. The Tuluva kings of Vijayanagar and the Araveedu kings became the followers of Srivaishnavism. Do you know this? Famous Amnaya mutts of Srivaishnavism in South India : 1. Yatiraja mutt - Melukote and Sriperumbadur 2. Parakala (Brahmatantra) mutt - Mysuru 3. Ahobala mutt - Ahobala (Guntur, Andhra Pradesh) 4. Aandavan mutt - Srirangam 5. Vamaimalai mutt - Suchindram @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 27 Madhwacharya Madhwacharya was born in Pajaka Madhwacharya village near Udupi in Karnataka. His father was Nadilleya Narayana Bhatta and mother Vedavati. Lord Vishnu was their family deity. It is said that at a very tender age, he displayed abundant knowledge. He had his education in Vedas and Upanishads from Achyutapreksha. The same teacher later inducted Madhwacharya into sanyasa. While studying under his guru, Madhwacharya independently gained great knowledge about the religious scriptures and defeated his guru in debate. He advocated Dwaitha philosophy. According to this philosophy, the human soul and the Divine soul are separate. In order to propagate his philosophy, Madhwacharya took to travelling to various places and participated in debates. He brought Lord Krishna’s idol which was hidden in a muddy hillock called Gopichandana and installed it in Udupi. Further, to enable regular worship of Lord Krishna, he nominated Yathis and later 8 mutts called the Ashthamaths were formed. Do you know this? Ashtha mutts : Palimaru, Adamaru, Krishnapura, Puttige, Shirur, Sode, Kaniyoor and Pejawar mutts. According to Madhwacharya, the world is not maya or illusion. It is as true as Paramatma or the Divine Soul. Between these, the Divine soul is independent and the rest of the world is illusionary. The Divine soul and the human soul have a Lord and Servant relation. Lord Vishnu or Narayana alone is supreme. Worship of Lord Vishnu can elevate the human soul and thus enable it to attain moksha. Works of Madhwacharya : Geetabhashya, Geetatatparya nirnaya, Mahabharata tatparya nirnaya, Vishnutatva nirnaya, Bhagawata tatparya nirnaya, Sutrabhashya, Mayavadakhandana etc. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 28 Prominent among the disciples of Madhwacharya who propagated the Dwaitha philosophy are Padmanabhateertha, Narahariteertha, Vijayendrateertha and Vadirajateertha. Basavanna – The Vishwa Guru Basavanna is the most prominent religious, social, political, economical and cultural reformer of 12th century in Karnataka. His father was Madarasa and mother Madalambike. He was born at Basavanabagewadi in the present district of Vijayapura. As per the custom of Brahmins, there was no upanayana ceremony for his mother, sister and friends, Basavanna rejected the sacred thread during the upanayana ceremony in his childhood and went towards Kudalasangama. He got education at Kudalasangama and became the Finance Minister under the king Bijjala of Mangalawade. Later he became the Prime Minister of Kalyana state owing to his honesty, dedication, dutifulness, farsightedness and concern for the public. He condemned the rituals, superstition and blind beliefs which was in practice then. He was instrumental in bringing economic, social and religious reforms in the society. He established ‘Anubhava Mantapa’ known as the world’s first parliament at Basava Kalyana of present Bidar district. Basavanna worked for the reformation of the soul along with the reformation of the society. Basavanna propounded the idea of one God in the form of Istalinga with the concept of ‘body as temple’, and ‘Awareness as Guru’. He believed that compassion (daya) is the base of Dharma and stressed non-violence. He brought out new concepts like work (Kayaka), charity (Dasoha) and Istalinga. Through these concepts, Basavanna established equal and secular society devoid of discrimination of gender in Kalyana. ‘The eternal shall perish, the transient will stay on’, ‘‘Body is abode of Lord Shiva’’ (Kayave Kailasa), thus said Basavanna, stressing on ‘Kaya’ and upheld the principle of work culture. He also declared there is no superiority or inferiority in work. He always wished good to all human beings as he believed that there is no one younger to him and Basaveshwara @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 29 no one elder to Shivabhaktas. He removed hoarding culture through the principle of ‘Dasoha’. His socio-religious thoughts and the way he brought them into practice were unique. He propagated women’s freedom and equality. Basavanna proclaimed that the people of the entire world are equal and no one is untouchable by birth. Vachanas were written in the backdrop of spiritual growth and welfare of the nation. These are his unique contributions to Kannada literature. In other words, Vachanas can be considered his contribution to the world as “constitution’’. Through vachanas, Vachanakaras tried to show the loopholes of the society and created awareness among people. Vachana movement united the followers of Basavanna irrespective of their caste, class, colour and gender. Prominent Vachanakaras are Satyakka, Aydakki Lakkamma, Siddarama, Channa Basavanna, Molige Maraiah, Ambigara Chowdaiah, Madiwala Machaiah, Madara Chennaiah, Samagara Haralaiah, Kinnari Bommaiah and others. EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words : 1. Shankaracharya was born at ______________ in Kerala. 2. “The world is an illusion, Brahma alone is the Truth”. This was propounded by _______________ 3. Ramanujacharya’s disciples are called ____________________. 4. Proponent of Dwaita philosophy is _________________. You Know this: (one of his vachanas) Do not steal, do not kill, do not lie. Do not rage, do not loathe the other, Do not brag of yourself, do not revile the opponent, This itself is inner purity, this itself is outer purity, This alone is the way to please our Koodala sangamadeva. ¤ªÀÄVzÀÄ w½¢gÀ° : PÀ¼À¨ÉÃqÀ, PÉÆ®¨ÉÃqÀ, ºÀĹAiÀÄ £ÀÄrAiÀÄ®Ä ¨ÉÃqÀ ªÀÄĤAiÀĨÉÃqÀ, C£ÀåjUÉ C¸ÀºÀå¥ÀqÀ¨ÉÃqÀ vÀ£Àß §tÂÚ¸À¨ÉÃqÀ, E¢gÀ C½AiÀÄ®Ä ¨ÉÃqÀ, EzÉà CAvÀgÀAUÀ ±ÀÄ¢Þ, EzÉà §»gÀAUÀ ±ÀÄ¢Þ EzÉà £ÀªÀÄä PÀÆqÀ ¸ÀAUÀªÀÄzÉêÀ£ÉÆ°¸ÀĪÀ ¥Àj. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 30 II. Answer the following questions by discussing with your group : 1. Who is the proponent of Advaita philosophy? 2. Which is the philosophy advocated by Ramanujacharya? What is their sect called? 3. Name the books written by Ramanujacharya. 4. Which are the tenets advocated by Madhwacharya? 5. Name the books written by Shankaracharya. 6. Why did Basavanna leave Basavanabagewadi? 7. What were some of the welfare measures of Basavanna? 8. Which followers were with Basavanna during the Vachana movement? 9. What is the meaning of ‘Kayave Kailasa’ propagated by Basavanna? III. Activities : 1. Collect all types of vachanas, sing and interpret them. 2. Collect pictures of vachanakaras like Basavanna. 3. Conduct Vachana Singing competition. IV. Projects : 1. With the help of your teacher, write an essay on Dwaita and Adwaita philosophy. 2. Invite the local vachana singers and have them sing and explain various vachanas. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 31 CHAPTER - 4 VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE AND BAHAMANI KINGDOM We learn about the following in this chapter, • The establishment of Vijayanagara empire and Bahamani kingdom. • The dynasties which ruled Vijayanagara and Bahamani kingdom. • Achievements and contributions of Shri Krishnadevaraya. • The contributions of the Vijayanagara empire to culture. • The cultural achievements of the Bahamani kingdom. The establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire is a landmark in Indian history. The South Indian dynasties – the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiyas of Warangal, the Pandyas of Madurai, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra (Halebeedu), the Cholas of Tanjore attacks were all victims of violent Allauddin Khilji. As a result, political instability, lawlessness, fear and religious turmoil prevailed everywhere. In such a situation, the establishment of Vijayanagara empire enabled the protection of the Hindu religion and Indian culture. Harihara and Bukka established this empire on the banks of the Tungabhadra river in the year 1336. Later Hampi became the capital of Vijayanagara empire. The Four Dynasties that ruled Vijayanagara Sangama Saluva Tuluva Araveedu The famous kings of Sangama dynasty (1336 – 1486) were Harihara I, Bukkaraya, Harihara II and Praudhadevaraya. Harihara laid the foundation for the Vijayanagara empire and developed a capital amidst of hillocks. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 32 Bukkaraya Bukkaraya defeated the Reddys of Kondaveedu and merged Penukonda area with Vijayanagara. Bukka was successful in solving the differences between the Jains and the Srivaishnavas, thereby upheld religious harmony. This fact is revealed by one of the inscriptions in Shravana Belagola. He constructed a fort and a few temples in the capital and encouraged agricultural activities. Bukkaraya sent an ambassador to the court of a Chinese king belonging to the Ming dynasty. Harihara II : During the 27 years rule of Harihara II, Do you know this ? T h e w r i t i n g o f commentaries on the Vedas was completed during Harahara II period. Hence he earned the title ‘Vaidika Margasthapanacharya’. He developed markets in 26 important cities of his kingdom. the son of Bukkaraya, the Vijayanagara Empire comprised of vast area. He took into his control Kondaveedu,Kurnool and Nellore forts. Harihara II expanded his kingdom from Goa to the north of the Konkan coast. He occupied the fort of Pangala lying to the north of Krishna river in the year 1398. Devaraya II (Praudhadevaraya) : The most famous king in the Sangama dynasty was Devaraya II. He had earned the title of ‘Elephant Hunter’. Do you know this ? Nicole Conti, an Italian t r a v e l l e r , v i s i t e d Vijayanagar and has recorded interesting facts about the kingdom. He has revealed that the capital spread across 60 sq.miles. Devaraya II defeated the king Gajapati Kapilendra of Orissa and seized Kondaveedu. By suppressing the regional leaders across the border, he expanded the kingdom upto Krishna river in the north east. Later, he defeated the Kerala ruler and received royalties from Kerala and Sri Lanka. This earned him the title “Dakshinapathada Chakravarthi” (the Emperor of the South). Through these conquests the Vijayanagara Empire extended from Sri Lanka to Gulbarga and Telangana to Malabar. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 33 Devaraya II chased the traditional foe Do you know this ? The Persian Ambassador, Abdul Razak, visited the capital of Vijayanagar towards the end of April,1443. Impressed by the glory of the kingdom, he exclaimed thus: “The eye has not seen nor the ear heard of any place like Vijayanagar. There is no place on earth which is comparable to Vijayanagar.” Ahmed Shah of Bahamani till Bijapur and occupied Mudgal and Bankapura. His commander, Lakkanna Dandesha, took up a successful naval victory. Devaraya II was tolerant towards other religions. He constructed Mosques, Jain and Vaishnava temples in the capital. Being a poet himself, he had in his court the Sanskrit scholar, Dindima and the Kannada scholar, Lakkana Dandesha. During his period, Veerashaiva tradition and literature saw a revival. After the death of Devaraya II in 1446, weak kings came to power, and the rule of the Sangama dynasty came to an end. Krishnadevaraya The son of Narasanayaka of Tuluva Shri Krishnadevaraya dynasty and his second wife, Nagalambika, Krishnadevaraya was the most famous king among the rulers of the Vijayanagar Empire. During his rule, the Vijayanagar Empire reached the pinnacle of glory in comparison with world-famous rulers like Ashoka, Samudragupta and Harshavardhana. He ruled for 20 years. When he came to power, the kingdom faced various complicated internal and external problems. The Europeans who had arrived through new sea-route established their colonies. The Moghuls of the north tried to expand their Empire in the south. The five Shahi kingdoms of the Bahamani dynasty became powerful Sultanates and plunged into wars with Krishnadevaraya. In addition to these, the kings of Ummatthur and Orissa were a constant source of threat. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 34 The military achievements of Krishnadevaraya As mentioned by Robert Sewell, Varaha - The state emblem Krishnadevaraya was an unparalleled warrior, shrewd commander and political expert. He won all the wars and expanded his empire in the South.He defeated Ummatthur’s Gangaraja and took over the Shivanasamudra fort from him. Then he conquered the Raichur fort. He helped the Portuguese army to conquer Goa from the Bijapur Sultan and established trade relations with them. He attacked the Udayagiri fort. When he attacked it he thought that it was a very strong fort and very difficult to conquer it, but decided to conquer it in a day and conquered it. This shows his determination. He conquered Kalinga’s capital Cuttack and defeated Gajapati Prataparudra. He signed a peace agreement with him. Vijayanagara (Hampi) Honnavara Mangaluru Bahamani Kingdam Raichur Goa Kannanur Mysuru Calicut Cochin Tanjavor Madhurai Tuticorin VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 35 Krishnadevaraya defeated Adil Shahi of Vijayapura(Bijapur) and won the Raichur fort. At the time of attacking the Raichur fort, he encouraged all the soldiers saying: “Everyone has to die one day. If you die in the battlefield, you go to heaven. If you win, you will be blessed. Therefore, everyone of you come and fight with me; don’t be cowards.” After occupying Raichur fort, Krishnadevaraya seized Bidar and Kalaburagi (Gulbarga) forts. He defeated the Prime Minister of the Bahamani kingdom, Kasim Bareed and freed the Bahamani prince he had imprisoned and coronated the prince on the Bahamani throne at Bidar and earned the title “Yavanarajya Pratisthapanacharya”. By the time Krishnadevaraya died, the Vijayanagara empire had spread over in all directions and was very vast. Krishnadevaraya was not only a skilled warrior but also an able administrator. His Telugu work ‘Amukta Maalyada’ reveals the shrewdness he possessed in matters of state. He provided irrigation facilities for expansion of agriculture. With the friendship of the Portuguese, he increased foreign trade. He abolished tax on marriages. He was a great patron of art, literature and religions. There were eight Telugu poets known as Ashtha Diggajas in his court. Krishnadevaraya was a poet himself and wrote the play ‘Jambavati Kalyana’ in Sanskrit. Allasani Peddanna, Nandi Timmanna, Durjuti, Tenali Ramakrishna and others were the Telugu poets in his court. Krishnadevaraya constructed Krishna temple at Hampi. Along with many of the temples, he erected Maharangamantapa in Virupaksha temple at Hampi and also many other temples. The Portuguese travellers, Paes and Barbosa, have applauded the dignity and ability of Krishnadevaraya, during whose time people of all religions enjoyed religious freedom. Fall of the Vijayanagara Empire After Krishnadevaraya, Achyutaraya Activity : Read stories of Tenali Ramakrishna which reveal and Sadashivaraya came to the throne, his intelligence Krishnadevaraya’s son-in-law, Ramaraya of the Araveedu dynasty handled the administration in an able manner. Although Ramaraya had improved the prestige of the kingdom by waging many wars during his 23-year reign, many foes had sprung up against Vijayanagar. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 36 Counteracting to the frequent attacks Do you know this? Penugonda, Chandragiri, Paddebidu, Tiruvadi (Tiruvankuru),Muluvayi (Mulubagilu), Santalige (Shivamogga area) and Mangaluru were the important provinces of the Vijayanagar empire. by the Deccan Shahi Sultans, Ramaraya had occupied Vijayapura and Golkonda forts. This had provoked the Sultans to wage war against Ramaraya. The Deccan Sultans who were envious of the progress and prosperity of the Vijayanagara empire, forgot their political differences and were united. In 1565 the united army of the four kingdoms mounted an attack on Vijayanagar. Ramaraya’s army was defeated in this battle, and he died. The victorious army of the Deccan Sultans plundered the glorious kingdom of Vijayanagar. As a result, the capital Hampi became a ruin. Later, the Araveedu dynasty ruled from Penugonda, Chandragiri and finally Vellore till 1646. The chieftains of Mysuru, Keladi and Chitradurga in Karnataka became independent. The cultural contributions of Vijayanagar Administration : The administration in the Do you know this? • H o n n a m m a w a s a reporter in the court of Devaraya II. • Wrestling was the most popular sport during the Vijayanagara period. Hariyakka was a famous female wrestler of that time. Vijayanagara empire was carried on in a traditional manner. The kings selected their eldest sons as their heirs. The central administration was strong and some powers were decentralised. The Council of Ministers, strong military, provincial chieftains or the king would give land to the leader or chieftain in return for military service. There were different bodies like the State Council leader (Nayankar), village administration etc. Thimmarasa was a Prime Minister. The kingdom had various administrative levels like the state, district and village. The king enjoyed absolute power in Do this yourself : Visit a G r a m Panchayat and collect information about the way Gram Sabhas work. judicial matters. The provincial officers used to dispense justice in the provinces. Punishment used to be severe. The village was the last level of administration and @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 37 the Grama Sabhas used to carry on the administration there. The Gowda, Karani and Talwar used to assist in the village administration. In the Provinces the Nadagowdas and in the cities the Pattanaswami used to look after the administration. Vijayanagar had a mighty army. It consisted of three hierarchies of permanent troops, troops sent by vassal states and troops of royal guards (this looked after the king’s security). Infantry, cavalry, elephants and cannons were the main factions of the army. There were mammoth elephants. Horses brought from Arabia were a major attraction at Vijayanagar. There was a naval squad in the army. People from all religions could occupy high positions in the army. Farmers and hunters became chieftains. Forts and moats played an important role during the wars. Social system : There was also occupation-based caste system. There were many skilled artisans, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, bellmetal smiths, carpenters, weavers and cobblers in the society. The practices of child marriage, sati and devadasi systems were prevalent. Though monogamy was the common practice, kings and rich people had many wives. Women enjoyed a dignified status in society. There were female wrestlers and female palace guards. Holi, Deepavali and Dasara festivals were celebrated publicly. Dasara festival used to be celebrated with pomp and glory at Hampi under royal patronage. Music and dance enjoyed great popularity. Economic system : Vijayanagar was Do this yourself : Compare the Dasara celebrations at present in Mysore and in those days at Hampi. economically prosperous. Land tax was the main source of revenue for the kingdom. Farmers used to give of their income to the government in the form of tax. Professional tax, revenue tax, road tax, market tax, commercial tax, import and export taxes and tributes from the vassals were the other forms of revenue to the kingdom. Agriculture was the backbone of the economy. People grew different kinds of crops throughout the year. Jowar, ragi, paddy, wheat, lentils, pulses like green gram, black gram and tuvar, sesame (til) seeds, groundnuts, cotton, sugarcane and coconut were the main crops. The Vijayanagar kings constructed wells, tanks and canals to encourage irrigation and agriculture. There were five kinds of practices of land holdings like @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 38 geni, guttige, siddhaya, vara and gadi (tenancy, lease holdings and other kinds). The Vijayanagara empire achieved great progress in the field of industries and commerce. Spices like pepper, cloves and cardamom, salt petre, iron ore, diamonds, granulated sugar, musk, sandal perfume etc. were exported by them. There were important textile industries. Coins of different denominations like gold coins, gadyaana, pagoda, silver coins and copper coins were in use. Do you know this? Vajrakaroor near Gutti in Anantapur district was the diamond center. Sapphires used to be available in plenty in Calicut. Bhatkal was the center for iron ore. Rose perfume used to be manufactured at Pulicat. The Portuguese traveler, Paes, has recorded that there used to be a fair every day at the Vijayanagara capital, Hampi. The seven main markets were Virupaksha, Krishna, Pansupari, Varadarajamma, Achyuta, Vittala and Malyavanta. Bhatkal, Honnavara and Mangaluru were the important ports of Vijayanagara, and foreign traders from Arab, China and Portugal had trade relation with the Vijayanagara empire. Religious system : Vijayanagara empire enjoyed the distinction of having encouraged all religions equally. The atmosphere was such that Shrivaishnavites and Jains forgot their religious differences and lived in perfect harmony. The early kings of Vijayanagara patronized Shaivites and Veerashaivites, whereas the later kings encouraged Vaishnavites. In Vijayanagar, masjids and dargas were built for Muslims. The kings of Vijayanagar developed business with Portuguese and encouraged Christianity by giving permission to construct churches. Literature : Due to the peace and order, economic progress, literature flourished. Various works were created in Kannada, Sanskrit, Telugu and Tamil languages. Do this yourself : Collect coins or pictures of coins of the ancient periods. Do you know this? Whether he is a Christian, Jew, Muslim or Hindu, everyone led life peacefully in Vijayanagara kingdom – Barbosa, a foreign traveller. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 39 Ratnakaravarni’s ‘Bharateshavaibhava’, Chamarasa’s ‘Prabhulingaleele’, Kumaravyasa’s ‘Gaduginabharata’ are the important Kannada works of the time. Bheemakavi translated Palkurike Somanatha’s Telugu work, ‘Basavapurana’, to Kannada language. The collection of Veerashaiva vachanas called ‘Shunyasampadane’ was also published. Besides Lakkanna Dandesha’s ‘Shivatatvachintamani’, books in Kannada on human medical science, veterinary science, poetics, astrology and cookery were also published. Saint Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa, Shripadaraya and Vyasaraya enriched dasa sahitya. Among these, Kanakadasa’s ‘Mohanatarangini’, ‘Nalacharitre’, ‘Haribhaktisara’ and ‘Ramadhanyacharitre’ are important. Vidyaranya wrote ‘Shankaravijaya’ and ‘Sarvadarshana samgraha’ in Sanskrit. His brother, Sayanacharya, wrote commentaries on the Vedas called ‘Vedarthaprakasha’, ‘Ayurvedasudhanidhi’, ‘Purusharthasudhanidhi’ and other books. Kampannaraya’s wife, Gangadevi, wrote a book called ‘Maduravijayam’. This book deals with Kampanna’s invasion and a description of places of pilgrimage. The court poet of Devaraya II, Srinatha, had earned the title ‘Kavichakravarthi’. There were eight famous poets called the Asthadiggajas in Krishnadevaraya’s court. Allasani Peddanna’s ‘Manucharitam’, Timmanna’s ‘Parijatapaharanam’, and Tenali Ramakrishna’s ‘Ubhataradhyacharitam’ are important works of this period. Krishnadevaraya’s court had also Tamil poets, paranjyothiyer Veeraraghavar, Mandala Purusha, Gyanaprakasha, Harihara and others. Paranjyoti Iyer wrote ‘Tiruvalayadal puranam’. In the period of Vijayanagara empire they encouraged Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu & Tamil languages. Art and Architecture: The excellent work done by Vijayanagar kings in the fields of art and architecture is memorable. The emperors were known as great patrons of architecture. During this period, temples, palaces, forts, towers, huge halls (mahamantapa), public buildings, tanks, bunds, canals and dams were constructed. Do this yourself : Visit Hampi and collect full information about the temples and other structures there. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 40 The unique features of Vijayanagar art : The Vijayanagar kings continued the architectural style of Chalukyas, Cholas and Hoysalas. The unique feature of their architecture was the construction of huge auditorium and marriage halls. Temples had huge towers (rayagopura), leaf-shaped arches and platforms. In this art, more than ornamentation, the qualities of grandeur, awe and elegance were given importance. Rough granite stone (kanashile) was used for construction of these structures. Important temples: During the period Do you know this? The temples, buildings and idols constructed by the kings of Vijayanagar have been referred to by the famous art historian, Percy Brown. He has described the architectural style as a great evolution of Dravidian style. of the Vijayanagar kings, temples were built in Hampi, Shringeri, Tirupati, Lepakshi, Karkala, Moodabidri, Bhatkal, Chidambaram, Kanchi, Kalahasti, Nandi, Srishaila, Kolar and other places. The most important temple constructed in the beginning of the Vijayanagar dynastic rule was Vidyashankara temple at Shringeri. The structure of this temple is unique in India. The most ancient temple of Vijayanagar is Virupaksha temple at Hampi. Having a vast courtyard/hall, this temple has many pillars with sculptures and decorative ceilings. The Vijaya Vitthala temple of Hampi is known for its magnificent architectural beauty. The saptaswara musical pillars, huge Kalyana Mantapas and the Stone Chariot have enhanced the beauty of this temple. Vijaya Vitthala Temple Hampi Virupaksha Temple @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 41 The Dasara festival was celebrated on the Mahanavami Dibba constructed by Krishnadevaraya. The Persian ambassador Abdul Razak, recorded that during this festival, kings from distant places and provincial leaders used to assemble as per the orders of the emperors. Kamal Mahal, Elephant stable, Queen’s bath are wonderful examples of Indo-Muslim architectural style. Lakshminarasimha, Kadalekalu Ganesha, Sasuvekalu Ganesha and Uddana Veerabhadra’s idols are attractive. The fort of Hampi during Vijayanagar empire was very strong with seven circular walls around it. At present, there are only four circular walls around it. Music and Dance: The Vijayanagar Stone chariot kings patronized fine arts like music, dance, drama and yakshagana. Artists enjoyed great respect in the palace and temples. Saint Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa had enriched Carnatic music through kirtanas. Dancers, adorned in exquisite costumes and jewellery, performed dance in the temples and palaces. BAHAMANI KINGDOM The other important historical change seen in the 14th century was the rise of the Bahamani kingdom. In the year 1347, Alauddin Hasan Gangu Baheman Shah established this dynasty. The Bahamani and Shahi dynasties ruled from 1347 to 1686. Among their rulers, Mohammad Shah I, Mohammad Shah II, Feroz Shah, Usuf Adil Khan, Ibrahim Adil Shah I, Ibrahim Adil Shah II are very famous. Mohammad Shah, son of Allauddin Hassan Gangu Bahaman constructed the famous vast Jamia Masjid in Gulbarga in the year 1367. Feroz Shah who came after him, built a new capital called Ferozabad. He constructed a planetarium. He was a great scholar. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 42 Surath Daman Birar Dawlathbad Ahamad Nagar Vijayapura Bidar Golkhonda Raichur Do.ab Goa Vijaya Nagar Empire Bahamani kingdom Gujarath Khandesha Vijayanagar (Hampi) Kalaburagi Mohammad Gawan (1411-1481) From1347 to 1426, Kalburgi was the capital of Bahamani kingdom. During this period, Mohammad Gawan ruled the kingdom with selflessness and dedication. As a Prime Minister, he took the Bahamani kingdom to great heights. He learnt Muslim religious verses and law at Kairo, also gained proficiency in Arabic and Parsi languages. He served as the Prime Minister during the rule of Bahamani kings Humayun, Nizam Shah and Mohammad Shah III. He was responsible for enhancing the glory of Bahamani kingdom by his efficient administration and victories. Gawan conquered Konkan, Goa and Belagavi. Later, he invaded Orissa and conquered Kondaveedu. In the year 1481., he invaded Kanchi and plundered its huge wealth. Thus, Mohammad Gawan who was responsible for the @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 43 all-round development of the Bahamani kingdom, became a victim to a conspiracy of his enemies and was beheaded on the false charge of betrayal to the kingdom. After him, the kingdom became weak and disintegrated into five parts. Division of Bahamani kingdom (1518) Ahamad Nagar Vijayapura Birar Bidar Golkonda ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ (Nijam Shahi) (Adil Shahi) (Emad Shahi) (Barid Shahi) (Kuthub Shahi) Ibrahim Adil Shah II (1580 – 1627) The most famous king of Adil Shahi, Ibrahim II ascended the throne in his 9th year. He ruled over for 47 years with historic incidents. Politically he took Vijayapura to the pinnacle of glory with his efficient administration, and was responsible for the tremendous progress in art, literature and education. His book ‘Kitab-E-Navaras’ begins with prayers to the God’s Ganesha, Saraswathi and Narasimha. There are prayers to Muhammad, the Prophet too. This book is an evidence of the knowledge, magnanimity and religious tolerance of Ibrahim II. Contributions of the Bahamani Sultans The Bahamani and Shahi Sultans ruled over Karnataka for almost 200 years. In addition to Karnataka, they extended their kingdom upto Tanjore in Tamil Nadu. They had organised their administration based on Islamic religious principles. Administration: There were three levels of administration namely Central, Provincial and Village. Among these, there was revenue, judicial and military administration too. The Sultan was the chief of the central administration. The cabinet was called Majlis-E-II. Top officials, commandants, ulemas and amins, friends and relatives of the Sultan, attended the meeting. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 44 Gawan converted the then existing four provinces into eight units and these provinces were divided into fifteen Sarakars. The Subedar was the administrator in each of these Sarakars. Sarakars were divided into paraganas. Kotwal, Deshmukh and Desai were the administrators of the paraganas. The village head was Patel, Kulkarni and guards as staff. The village units were independent units. Revenue, military and judicial system: Amir-E-Jumlas were the head of the revenue authorities. Land tax was the main source of income for the kingdom. to of the agricultural production was collected as land tax. There were 50 kinds of taxes including house, mines, tobacco, grasslands, trade and employment. The money earned by taxation was used for maintaining palaces, wars and bodyguards, construction and maintenance of forts. The Bahamani kingdom depended on the Do you know this? Bibiji Khanum, Yusuf Adil Shah’s wife, Dilsha Agha, Chand Bibi and Shahar Banu Begum were the famous women of this dynasty. strength of their military force. Military expenditure was huge. They had four types of armed troops. Permanent troops, troops recruited during war-time, troops for religious wars and untis for the protection of the Sultan and the palaces. Infantry, cavalry, elephants and explosive units were the important divisions of the army. Bijapur fort was the most formidable of the Adil Shahi forts. The Sultan was the supreme Judicial authority. He ruled according to the prevailing customs, traditions and principles of the Islamic religion. Kazis and senior officers assisted the Sultan in dispensing justice. Due to their efficient administration, the state witnessed progress in economic, social and cultural fields. Do you know this? Ibrahim Adil Shah II was so impressed by Mahipatidasa’s discourse on the Bhagavat that he appointed him Kazhandar official in his court. Mahipatidasa’s Bhagavat devotion flowed straight into the heart of the Badshah. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 45 Economic, social and religious systems : Agriculture was the main occupation in the villages. Spinning, oil extraction, sugar and jaggery manufacture, thread-weaving, leather work, pottery, carpentry, goldsmithy, perfumery and sculpture were also the other occupations. There were ports in Dhabol, Rajapura, Chawla and Goa. Silk, wine, gold, silver, copper, tin, lead and glass were the main imports. Trade and employment organisations were in existence. Gold coins known as ‘honnu’ and silver coins were known as ‘lorry’ and ‘tanka’ were in circulation. Undivided patriarchal families continued in the society. Caste system and polygamy were practised. Haridasas of the Bhakti panth and Muslim Sufi saints tried to imbibe tolerance in society. In Muslim society, Sunni, Shia, Syed, Sheikh and Pathan were the main groups. Muslim women practised burkha system. Education, art and architecture : The educational policy of the Adil Shahis was to propogate Islamic culture. There were schools known as maktabs. They were under the control of mosques. The students in the maktabs were taught the alphabet, religion, law, poetry and rhetoric. The madrasas were centers of higher education. Mohammad Gawan who was a scholar himself, established a madrasa (college) at Bidar to encourage study of the Islamic religion and law. This college was 242 ft. length, 222 ft. width and 56 ft height three-storied magnificent building constructed in the Deccan style. It had a library with around 3000 manuscripts. The college was also a lodge for students, teachers and orthodox people. Astronomy, grammar, mathematics, philosophy and political science were studied in this college. The Sultans developed Indo-Saracenic style of architecture. The Jamia mosque built by Ali Adil Shah I is a prominent monument even today. Ibrahim Roza, Gol Gumbaz, Gagan Mahal and Asar Mahals are the important monuments of this time. These monuments have made the Adil Shahis world famous. The Gol Gumbaz at Vijayapura is one of the greatest structures in the world. It has an area of 1800 sq.ft. There are 7- storied minarets in the four corners of the building. There is a huge dome in the center. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 46 Gol Gumbaz : This monument is in Vijayapura in Karnataka. Mohammad Adil Shah constructed this monument. The construction work is said to have begun around 1626 and completed in 1656. This structure is 51 mtrs.tall and has a wide dome. The dome has four pillars in which steps have been built to go up. The unique feature of this dome is that if one whispers standing on one side of the dome, it can be heard clearly on the other side. It is the biggest Dome in India. Jamia mosque Bidar fort EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. 1. Vijayanagara empire was established in the year ______________. 2. The poetess, who wrote Madhuravijaya is _____________. 3. Praudhadevaraya’s minister was __________________. 4. The king who wrote Amukta Malyada in Telugu was _______. Gol Gumbaz @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 47 5. The minister who established famous a madrasa at Bidar was _________. 6. The king who wrote Kitab-E-Navarasa was _____________. II. Answer the following questions after discussing in your group. 1. Name the four dynasties who ruled Vijayanagara empire. 2. What were the achievements of Devaraya II? 3. What were the problems Krishnadevaraya had to face when he ascended the throne? 4. What are the contributions of Vijayanagara empire to the economic system and society? 5. Describe the art and architecture of the Vijayanagar period. 6. Who was Mohammad Gawan ? What was his contribution to education? 7. Describe the administration and taxation system during the rule of the Bahamani sultans. 8. Explain the education, art and architecture of the Bahamani sultans. III. Activities : 1. Collect pictures of the various momuments at Hampi. 2. Read the books which describe the Vijayadashami celebrations on Mahanavami platform at Hampi. 3. Listen to the stories of Tenali Rama from your elders and write them down. IV. Projects : 1. Visit Hampi and write an essay on the monuments. 2. Write an essay on the market system at Hampi during the Vijayanagar period. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 48 POLITICAL SCIENCE CHAPTER – 5 OUR CONSTITUTION We learn about the following in this chapter, • The formation of Constituent Assembly. • The Drafting Committee of the Constitution. • The Preamble. • The salient features of the Constitution. • The Fundamental Rights, Duties and Directive Principles of State policy. India had to face many problems soon after independence. Rehabilitating the refugees who migrated from Pakisthan, merger of the princely states, maintainance of law and order were the challenges after independence. Sardar Patel successfully achieved the merger of princely states and provinces with the Union of India. Even the challenge of framing a Constitution in order to enable us to govern the country was also fulfilled. Now let us know about the structure of our Constitution, its characteristics, the Fundamental Rights and Duties mentioned therein. The Indian Constituent Assembly : Constitution is a set of rules and regulations guiding the administration of a State. The recommendations of the Motilal Nehru Committee and the decisions taken by the meeting of the National Congress at Karachi emphasised the need for the formation of a Constituent Assembly. Do you know this ? Cabinet Committee : Lord Patrick Lawrence – Indian Secretary for Parliamentary Affairs, Sir Stafford Cripps – President of the Commerce Association, A.V.Alexander – Captain of the Indian Navy @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 49 The first meeting of the new Constituent Assembly was held on 9th December, 1946. The next meeting on 11th December 1946 under the Chairmanship of Dr. Rajendra Prasad. Eminent persons like Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, B.N. Rau, C.N.Mukherjee, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, C.Rajagopalachari, K.M. Munshi, T.T.Krishnamachari, Smt. Sarojini Naidu, Smt. Sucheta Kripalani attended the meeting. Prominent people from Karnataka, S.Nijalingappa, K.C.Reddy, Kengal Hanumanthaiah, Tekur Subramanyam and others were also present. Drafting Committee : The Constituent Assembly formed 22 committees and 05 sub committees to examine in detail all the issues related to the country. Dr.B.R.Ambedkar was the Chairman of one of the most important committees, i.e., the Drafting Committee. Based on his contribution to the framing of the constitution, he is called as the ‘Chief Architect of Indian Constitution’. The other members of this committee were N.Gopalaswamy Iyengar, Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyar, K.M.Munshi, T.T.Krishnamachari and some other eminent statesmen. Framing of the Constitution: The Constituent Assembly was formed on 11th December 1946, held 145 mettings and framed a draft constitution. During these discussions, various laws enacted by the British Government in 1909, 1919 and 1935, the British Parliamentary system, the American Bill of Rights, the Social Directive Policies of Ireland were studied and some elements of those were incorporated. Finally, the Indian Constitution was approved on 26 November, 1949 and came into force on 26 January, 1950. This day (January 26) is celebrated as Republic Day. Do you know this? • The demand for ‘Poorna Swaraj’ (Total Freedom) for India was adopted at the Lahore Session on January 26, 1930. • Benegal Narasinga Rau, from Karnataka, laid down the structure and frame of the Constitution and prepared the initial draft, as Advisor to Constituent Assembly. He was The Prime Minister of Jammu & Kashmir princely state, The Judge of International Court of Justice at The Hague. Dr.B.R.Ambedkar Dr.Rajendra Prasad B.N. Rau @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 50 Preamble to the constitution The Indian Constitution has combined in itself the best features of different constitutions of the world and has its own Preamble. The Preamble contains the fundamental policies and ideals of the constitution. It is the sum of the structure, values, principles and goals of the constitution. It is based on the aspirations and ideals of the people of India. The Preamble is a part of the ‘Objective Resolution’ put forward by Jawaharlal Nehru on December 13, 1946 and approved by the Constituent Assembly on January 22, 1947. India was still undivided then. After India was divided and achieved Independence in August 1947, the objective resolution was slightly altered and approved. This resolution upholds India’s sovereign, democratic, republic. Social, economic and political justice for all people. The Preamble to our Constitution is meaningful. It describes our political system and is a key to understand our Constitution. It was described as the ‘Jewel of the Constitution’. K.M.Munshi referred to it as a ‘Political Horoscope’. WE, The People of India : The Indian Constitution has been framed by Indians ourselves. We, the people of India, worked hard at framing rules that would enable the realization of the aspirations of all Indians. Sovereign : India is a sovereign country. We have our own foreign policy, non-alignment policy by implementing which the country has achieved internal and external autonomy. Socialist : The goal of our constitution is to create social equality and promote welfare of all the people in our country. To enable this, Directive Principles of State Policy have been incorporated in the Constitution through the 42nd amendment. Secular : The word ‘Secular’ has been incorporated in the Constitution through the 42nd Amendment in 1976. No religion has acquired the status of a National Religion, So India is a secular country. Citizens have the liberty to practise any religion they desire. That is the reason we can see religious harmony in India. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 51 We, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST, SECULAR, DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to SECURE TO ALL ITS CITIZENS: JUSTICE, Social, Economic and Political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all: FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation. IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION. (The words SOCIALIST and SECULAR were added by the 42nd Constitution Amendment Act, 1976) PREAMBLE TO THE CONSTITUTION @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 52 Democratic Republic : Securing the welfare of everyone is the responsibility of a government in a democracy. Problems are resolved through discussions. Elections are held for every five years through universal adult franchise. The fact that our Head of State is the President of India who is elected for a period of five years which proves that our country is a Republic. SALIENT FEATURES OF OUR CONSTITUTION : Written and Lengthy Constitution : Our Constitution is in written form. The powers and functions of the organs of the government like the Legislature, Executive and Judiciary have been delineated in the constitution. Fundamental Rights, Duties, Directive Principles of State Policy etc. are all in the written form. Originally, our constitution consisted of 22 chapters, 8 schedules and 395 Articles. Later, with many amendments, it has become a lengthy constitution with 25 chapters, 12 schedules and 450 Articles. Flexible and Rigid Constitution : The constitution which can be easily amended is called flexible or simple constitution. Constitutions that have special procedures for amendment are called rigid or complicated constitutions. Our constitution is neither too flexible nor too rigid. Parliamentary Form of Government : Our Constitution provides for a Parliamentary form of Government. The sovereign power of the nation is vested in the elected Parliament. The Executive is responsible to the Legislature at the Central and State levels. The Cabinet shall be in power as long as it enjoys the confidence of the legislature. As soon as it loses the confidence of the Legislature, it has to resign. Republican System : The Constitution has declared India a republic. Therefore, no one can come to power through hereditary principle. (This practice is prevalent in England). Though it is democratic, it is not a republic. In India, the President is the Constitutional Head of State and he is elected. Federal System : Our Constitution provides for a Federal System of Government because our country consists of different languages, castes, races and geographical regions. Administrative powers are shared by the Central and the State Governments (The Central list @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 53 has 100 subjects, the State list has 61 subjects and the Concurrent list has 52 subjects). The Supreme Court possesses powers to solve all disputes rising between the centre and the state with respect to any subject. Fundamental Rights : The rights that the constitution has given to the people are called Fundamental Rights. No law of any government Central or state, or any organisation can deny these rights. If the Fundamental Rights are taken away or endangered, the citizen can directly appeal to the High Court or the Supreme Court. These Rights are listed in the 3rd part of the constitution. Six Fundamental Rights, are Right to Liberty, Right to Equality, Right against Exploitation, Right to Religion, Right to Education and Culture, and Right to Constitutional Remedy. The Supreme Court has the powers to protect these Rights. Hence, the Supreme Court is referred to as ‘The Protector of Fundamental Rights’. Fundamental Duties : Duties are our responsibilities towards our country. 11 Fundamental Duties have been delineated in the ‘A’ part of the 4th Chapter under clause 51 ‘A’ of our Constitution. Through the 86th Amendment to the Constitution in 2002, it has been made a duty of parents to provide compulsory education to their children aged between 6 to 14 years. This is the 11th duty mentioned in the Constitution. Directive Principles of State Policy : Directive principles of State policy have been incorporated in the 4th schedule of our Constitution. These principles have been adopted from the Irish Constitution. They are the basis for the establishment of social and economic equality. They are the basic principles required for the administration of the country. Yet, the government cannot be questioned by a court of justice if it is not implemented. When the government frames new laws, it should pay attention to these principles. Independent and Centralized Judiciary System : Our judiciary is independent and centralized. The courts have the authority to give bold judgments in order to protect the rights of people. Neither the legislature nor the executive has any right to interfere with the working of the judiciary. The Supreme Court is the highest court in the land, and all high courts and subordinate courts function under it. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 54 Single Citizenship : The Constitution makes provision for a single citizenship in order to curb narrow-minded regionalishm, and promote nationalism. The citizens of this country have the equal rights, irrespective of their place of birth or residence. The legislature possesses the power to frame rules in this matter. Adult Franchise : The Constitution provides for adult franchise. All citizens above 18 years of age may exercise their right to vote. It symbolizes the Sovereignty absolute power of the people. Bicameral Legislature : The central Legislature is called Parliament. The Parliament consists of two Houses – the Lower House (Lok Sabha) and the Upper House (Rajya Sabha). Party System : Political parties are the pillars of a democracy. There is a multi-party system in India. The party which wins the majority of votes in the general election becomes the ruling party whereas the rest will be the opposition parties. Fundamental Rights and Duties : Fundamental Rights provide the social and political atmosphere necessary for the development of the personality of citizens. They are required for a person to lead a civilised life in society. They are also essential for the success of a democracy. There were 7 Fundamental Rights mentioned in the 3rd part of our Constitution. However, after the 44th Amendment, the right to property has been abolished. There are 6 Fundamental Rights at present : Do you know this ? In 1895, The National Congress urged the implementation of rights of citizens In 1895, Bal Gangadhar Tilak had demanded rights for people in his ‘Swarajya Bill’. In 1925, Dr.Annie Besant declared in ‘Common wealth of India Bill’ that Individual freedom, Freedom of Conscience, Freedom of Speech and Equality before Law are very important. The Cabinet Mission of 1946 supported Fundamental Rights. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 55 Right to Equality : This right is very essential for the success of democracy. Under this, all citizens are equal socially and economically before the law. All are equal before the Law and nobody is above the Law. All should get equal protection of the Law, and none should be discriminated against on the basis of their caste, religion, gender or place of birth. No citizen should be subjected to any restrictions with regard to access to shops, public restaurants, hotels, places of public entertainment or public places of worship. Under this Right, untouchability is an offence. This Right has enabled every citizen to get an equal opportunity to join government service. Right to freedom : It is one of the important Fundamental Rights. Under this right one who express his own openion, to conduct meetings without arms, to establish organisations, to live any where in India and to follow any profession and move around the country. It is a defensive right also and no one can be arrested without proper reason. No state law can snatch the life and freedom of a citizen. All citizens are accorded constitutional protection against any kind of exploitation. Right to Equality (Article 14th to 18th) Right to freedom (Article 19th to 22nd) Right against Exploitation (Article 23rd to 24th) Right to freedom of Religion (Article 25 to 28th) Cultural and Educational rights (Article 29 to 30th) Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32nd) Fundamental Rights @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 56 Right against exploitation : All citizens are accorded constitutional protection against any kind of exploitation. The aim of this Right is to prevent exploitation of women, children, the poor and the weak. Employment of children under 14 years of age in mining, industries and other dangerous occupations is punishable under law. Do you know this ? The Central Government has implemented many laws prohibiting exploitation. Minimum Wages Act – 1948 Immoral Activities Act – 1956 Dowry Prohibition Act – 1961 Removal of Bonded Labour Act – 1976 Sati Prevention Act -1987 Protection of Human Rights Act – 1993, Domestic Violence Act – 2005 etc Right to freedom of religion: Since India is a secular country, no religion has been given the status of a national religion. Citizens can accept any religion that their conscience dictates, practise it and propagate it. No one can be forced to pay taxes for the management of religious institutions. Use of religious places for political and other activities has been prohibited in the country. Cultural and educational rights : All citizens of the country have their own language, script and culture. It is the duty of the State to protect them. This Right protects the interests of religious and linguistic minorities. No one can be denied admission in a government-aided institution or institutions run by minorities. Do you know this ? Through the 86th Amendment to the Constitution in 2002, education has been made a right under Article 21 ‘A’. Under this Right, the State should provide compulsory and free education for all children aged between 6 to 14 years . The Karnataka Government has brought into force the Right to Education Act (RTE) in 2009. Right to Constitutional remedies: The Constitution has not only given Fundamental Rights to the citizens of India but also guaranteed them under Article 32. Whenever the Rights are violated either by a person or State Government or the Central Government, the citizens may appeal directly to the Supreme court for their protection. Dr.B.R.Ambedkar has called this Right ‘the heart and soul’ of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is empowered to enforce the @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 57 Fundamental Rights. Hence it is called ‘The Protector of Fundamental Rights’. This court can accept the following writ petitions for the protection of citizens’ rights : a. Habeas Corpus : When a person is been arrested without a reason, he or anyone else can file this petition on his behalf, asking for his release. The arrested person has to be produced before the court within 24 hours. (This writ petition does not apply to criminal cases.) b. Mandamus : When an official refuses to exercise his power or discharge his social duties, or when a subordinate court refuses to discharge its duty, the Supreme Court or the High Court can issue a Direction to the concerned asking them to carry out their responsibilities. c. Prohibition : This is a prohibitory order issued in a written form by the Supreme Court preventing a subordinate court from trying a case or issuing a judgment in cases beyond the limits of its authority. d. Certiorari : This is an order issued by the Supreme Court to the lower courts asking them to transfer their cases to the higher courts when ever they try the cases beyond their limits of authority. The Supreme Court also annuls the judgment given by those courts in such cases. e. Co-warrant : A co-warrant is issued in order to interrogate in court the person who has occupied a government post without possessing the required qualification for it. Public interest litigations have been filed in courts in order to protect the social rights denied to citizens and to protect public interest. Public interest litigations can be filed for the purpose of protecting legal rights, rights are essential to protect life and to protect Activity : C o l l e c t t h e information about the Human rights commission in the state. Collect the information about the action taken by H.R.C in case of vidention of Human Rights. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 58 environment from being polluted. These public interest litigations can be filed by individuals and social institutions. In recent years we see that courts on their own are filing such public interest litigations when situations arise. Fundamental Duties Rights and Duties are the two faces of the same coin. Rights without duties have no value or significance. 10 Fundamental Duties were included in 4th Chapter ‘A’ part, Article 51 ‘A’ with the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution, with the 86th Amendment in 2002, there are now 11 Fundamental duties. They are : 1. To respect the Constitution, National Flag and National Anthem. 2. To follow the noble ideals that inspired our National Struggle for Freedom. 3. To protect the integrity of India. 4. To defend the motherland when called upon to do so. 5. To promote the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India. 6. To preserve our rich heritage. 7. To protect and improve the natural environment. 8. To develop the scientific temper and the spirit of enquiry. 9. To safeguard public property and to obstain voilence. 10. To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activities. 11. The Parents or the guardians should provide an opportunity for education to their children between 6 and 14 years. Unlike fundamental rights, there is no protection from a court of law with regard to duties. However, there will be punishment under law for those who violate their duties. Directive Principles of State Policy : With an aim to establish a Welfare State, certain directive principles of state policy have been @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 59 incorporated in the Constitution. These principles serve as guidelines to the State. The framers of our constitution were inspired by the Irish constitution to include such directive principles. These directive principles are in the form of directions to the Central and State governments. Through these, the government intends to provide economic, social and political justice to its citizens. But these principles are based on ethics. So, if the governments, Central or State, do not implement them, they cannot be questioned in a court of law. These principles are socialist and liberal and have been based on Gandhian ideals. The Directive Principles are : 1. To provide adequate means of livelihood to all citizens. 2. To prevent the community wealth and resources from becoming the private property of a few people. 3. To provide equal pay for equal work to both men and women and to protect labour welfare. 4. To provide public assistance to those who are old, sick and weak or helpless. 5. To implement a Uniform Civil Code throughout the country. 6. To provide opportunities for the development of health and pre-school education to all children below 6 years. 7. To protect historical monuments and maintain places of historical interest. 8. To separate the Executive from the Judiciary. 9. To protect international peace and to respect international law. 10. To establish Gram Panchayats. 11. To encourage rural and cottage industries. 12. To organise and develop agriculture and animal husbandry on modern lines. Discuss : As a citizen of India, enjoy fundamantal rights. but not to forget duties. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 60 13. To ensure prohibition of liquor. 14. To ensure development of farming based on scientific methods. The Directive Principles of State Policy are important. They aim to achieve social welfare. While Fundamental Rights relate to an individual, the Directive Principles of State Policy relate to the whole community. The Central and the State Governments are making attempts to implement all the principles. These principles aim at holistic development of India. EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. 1. The Law which governs the States is ________________. 2. The meeting of new Constituent Assembly was held on _____________. 3. The Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution was ________________. 4. Our Constitution provides for a ________________ system of Government. 5. The State where the people enjoy sovereign power is called ___________________. 6. Our Constitution provides for ___________ citizenship to its citizens. 7. The Right for Constitutional Remedies has been incorporated in Article _________. 8. The Directive Principles of State Policy are borrowed from _______ Constitution. II. Answer the following questions. 1. Who was the President of the Constituent Assembly? 2. When did the Constitution come into force? 3. What does the Preamble to the Constitution contain? 4. What do you mean by ‘Secularism’? @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 61 5. Explain the salient features of our Constitution. 6. Which are the Fundamental Rights incorporated in our Constitution? 7. Make a list of the Fundamental Duties. 8. Which are the Directive Principles of State Policy? III. Activities. 1. Collect information with figures about the prominent leaders who were members of the Constituent Assembly. 2. List out the Fundamental Rights we enjoy. 3. List out the Fundamental duties. 4. Discuss the hurdles to implement uniform laws in our country. IV. Project. Write an essay on Fundamental Rights and Duties with the help of your teacher, and discuss them. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 62 CHAPTER – 6 THE UNION GOVERNMENT We learn about the following in this chapter, • The Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha, their structure, membership, qualifications and functions . • The election of the President, qualification to become president. • The Prime Minister, Cabinet and his functions. We have learnt in the previous lesson that India is a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic. England and France have a Unitary System of Government. India, like the United States of America, has a Federal System of Government. That means there is a Union Government at the Centre and State Governments in the States. India is a Union of States. The powers of the nation are divided between the Centre and the States. However, the Central Government has been given more powers in view of the unity, Integrity and security of the nation. It exercises these powers through the Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. UNION LEGISLATURE India has adopted the Parliamentary system of government and the Union Legislature is called the Parliament. Article 79 provides for the creation of Parliament. The Parliament consists of two Houses. The Upper House is called Rajya Sabha and the Lower House is called Lok Sabha. Rajya Sabha : The number of seats in the Rajya Sabha is 250, of which 238 members are elected by the members of the State Assemblies and Union Territories. The remaining 12 members, who are experts from various fields like literature, art, science and social work are nominated by the President. This House is also known as the House of Elders. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 63 Term of Office : The Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and is not dissolved like the Lok Sabha. But the term of the members is six years. One-third of its members retire on completion of six year term every second year. In their place new members are elected. If the members do not wish to continue, they may resign. Qualifications required to become a Member of Rajyasabha 1. Should be a citizen of India. 2. Should not be less than 30 years of age. 3. Should not have been punished under law. 4. Should not have been declared to be a person of unsound mind by a court of law. 5. Should possess the qualifications specified from time to time by the Parliament. The Vice-President is the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. The Deputy Chairman is chosen from among the members. At least of the members ( a minimum of 25 members) should be present during the sessions of the Rajya Sabha. The House should meet at least twice a year. The members may request for a special session. Lok Sabha : The members of the Lok Sabha are elected directly by the people, so, it is known as the House of People. The maximum number of seats is 545. 543 members are directly elected by the people. Whereas two Anglo-Indians are nominated by the President. 79 seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes and 41 seats are reserved for Scheduled Tribes. Term of Office : The Lok Sabha members are elected for a term of five years. However, on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, the President may dissolve the Lok Sabha, during emergency. The term may be extended for one year. Qualifications of the Members : 1. Should be a citizen of India. 2. Must not be less than 25 years of age. 3. Should not hold any office of profit under the Government. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 64 4. Should not be a person of unsound mind. 5. Should not have been punished under law. 6. Should possess qualifications as specified by Parliament from time to time. Lok Sabha Speaker : There is a provision for the members to elect from among themselves a Speaker and a Deputy Speaker. The Speaker has to impartially conduct the proceedings of the House. He should maintain the dignity and decorum of the House. When bills get equal number of votes for and against then the Speaker casts the deciding vote. The Deputy speaker conducts the proceedings in the absence of the Speaker. Role and work of opposition leader : • Highlight the wrong doings of the ruling government. • Examine thoroughly the policies of the government. • Keep the government, council of ministers and officials alert. • Enjoys dignity in the legislature. POWERS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARLIAMENT : Legislative powers : The main function of the Parliament is to make laws. It can frame laws on subjects mentioned in the Central list. The Financial Bill is presented only in the Lok Sabha. The other bills can be presented in either House. But the bills become laws only after proper discussion and approval by both the Houses. The Speaker casts his vote when a particular bill receives equal number of votes supporting and opposing it. When there is disagreement between the Houses regarding a bill, the President may call for a Joint Session of the Parliament and resolve the matter. After both the Houses pass the bill, it is forwarded to the President for his approval, after which it becomes law. Activity : Observe proceedings of the parliament session in T.V and write a note about the following : 1) Role of the Speaker. 2) Role of the opposition party 3) Role of the leader of the Ruling party . Activity : C o n d u c t a M o c k parliament in your school and get the experience as Prime Minister, speaker, and opposition leader. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 65 Administrative powers : In a Parliamentary system of government, the Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers form the Executive. The Union Cabinet is accountable to the Parliament. The Members of the Parliament ask questions which must be answered by the Ministers. The Council of Ministers can be in power only as long as they enjoy the trust of the Parliament. Parliament has control over the executive. Financial powers : Lok Sabha exercises total control over the financial matters of the country. The government cannot levy any tax or spend any money without the approval of the Lok Sabha. The Finance bill must be first introduced in the Lok Sabha. After being passed by the Lok Sabha, the bill is presented in the Rajya Sabha for discussion. The Rajya Sabha can give certain suggestions and directions, and also delay giving its consent to the bill for fourteen days. If it does not give its consent to the bill, it is taken for granted that the Rajya Sabha has approved it. It is then sent to the President for his assent. Judicial powers : Both the Houses of the Parliament have the authority to remove the President as well as the judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts through a Motion of Impeachment. They also have the powers to discuss the findings of reports related to the judiciary. Power to amend Constitution: Both the Houses of Parliament have equal powers to amend the Constitution. The Amendment Bill can be presented first in either House. However, the approval of both the Houses is required for the Amendment. If only one House approves for the Amendment and the other does not, then the Amendment cannot be carried out. In some cases the approval of the state assemblies is also essential. Other powers : 1. To frame laws relating to the powers and jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and the High Courts. 2. To establish one High Court for two or more States. 3. To create new States, rename them or to determine the boundaries of States. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 66 4. To discuss the reports of committees like the Public Services Commission, Finance Commission, Election Commission, Backward Classes Commission etc. 5. To approve the declaration of Emergencies like the National Emergency, State Emergency and Financial Emergency. UNION EXECUTIVE The Executive implements the laws framed by the Union Legislature. It also implements the Programmes and policies of the Union Government. The Union Executive consists of the President, Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers. The President is the head of the Executive only in name, whereas the Prime Minister and his Cabinet form the actual Executive. PRESIDENT Article 52 of our Constitution has created the post of the President. The Indian President is the Constitutional head of the country. He is the first citizen, the Head of the Executive and also the Commanderin-chief of all the three armed forces (Army, Navy and Air Force). He enjoys the highest position in the country as he is the Custodian of all Executive powers of the nation. No court of law can question his conduct or prosecute him. Samsat Bhavan (Parliament house) @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 67 Election of the President : Articles 54 and 55 of the Constitution stipulate the way the President should be elected. The President is elected by an electoral college of elected members of both Houses of Parliament, all elected members of the legislative assemblies of all States, New Delhi and Pondicherry. The Supreme Court judge administers him the oath of office. His term of office is five years. He is eligible for re-election. When he goes against the Constitution, he can be removed from office by the Parliament through a Motion of Impeachment. Motion of Impeachment : The President is a fundamental part of the parliament, and also the protector of the constitution. He has to ensure that no one violates the constitution. If the President himself violates the constitutions he can be impeached under Article 61. This impeachment can be carried out in either house of parliament. Advance notice of 14 days should be given for the debate. This should be supported by of the members. After discussion in both houses if of the members vote for the motion, the President is removed from the office. It is called impeachment. So for no President is impeached in India. Qualifications of President : 1. He should be a citizen of India. 2. He should have completed the age of 35 years. 3. He should be qualified for election as a Member of the Lok Sabha. 4. He should not hold any office of profit under the Government. Rashtrapathi Bhavan @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 68 OUR PRESIDENTS Dr. Rajendra Prasad 1950-1962 Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 1962-1967 Dr. Zakir Hussain 1967-1969 Dr. V.V. Giri 1969-1974 Dr. Fakruddin Ali Ahmed 1974-1977 Sri Neelam Sanjiva Reddy 1977-1982 Sri Gyani Zail Singh 1982-1987 Sri R. Venkataraman 1987-1992 Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma 1992-1997 Dr. K.R. Narayan 1997-2002 Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 2002-2007 Smt. Pratibha Patil 2007-2012 Sri Pranab Mukharjee 2012-2017 Shri Ram Nath Kovind 2017-2022 Smt. Droupadi Murmu 2022- @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 69 Powres of the President Executive Powers : All administration is carried out in the name of the President. The President appoints the Prime Minister and on his recommendation appoints the other ministers. The President has the powers to appoint persons to high posts like Auditor General, Comptroller and Auditor General, Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts, Governors, Chairman and Members of the Finance Commission, Chairman and Members of the Union Public Service Commission, Election Commissioners, Commanders-in-Chief to the three Armed Forces and the Ambassadors to different countries. Similarly, he has the power to terminate them also. Legislative Powers : The President has the power to summon the Parliament or postpone its sessions. He may also address a joint sitting of both Houses or dissolve the Lok Sabha. A Bill passed by both the Houses becomes an Act only after it receives the approval of the President. The President may either re-examine such Bills, return them or withhold them for some time. He may also nominate two Anglo-Indians to the Lok Sabha and 12 Members to the Rajya Sabha. In all these functions, he acts upon the recommendations of the Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers. Judicial Powers : The President has the power to reduce the term of imprisonment of criminals, and to cancel the capital punishment. He can approach the Supreme Court for suggestions with reference to legal matters of the country. Financial Powers : A finance bill can be introduced in the Lok Sabha with out the permission of the President. It is only after the President grants permission that the reports of the Finance Commission and the Comptroller and Auditor General are discussed in Parliament. The consolidated Fund is in the name of the President. It is from this Fund that the Judges of the Supreme Court and the Chairman and Members of the Public Service Commission receive their salaries. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 70 Military Powers : The President is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He appoints the Chiefs of the Army, Navy and Air Force on the recommendation of the Union Cabinet. He also declares war and peace on the recommendation of the Parliament. Emergency Powers : Based on the written recommendation of the Union Cabinet, the President can declare Emergency on three occasions: 1) Under Article 352 - National Emergency. 2) Under Article 356 - State Emergency. 3) Under Article 360 - Financial Emergency. The approval of the Parliament has to be secured within one month of declaration of any kind of emergency. Do you know this ? 1. National Emergency (Article 352) : When there is a threat to the security of any area in the country or the whole of it through external attack or internal disturbancess, this kind of emergency can be imposed. Ex. in 1962, 1971, 1975. 2. State Emergencey (Article 356) : Based on the report of the governor of a state or if the state government for any reason cannot function according to the priniciples of the constitution the president can declare emergency under Article 356. (Ex. From 20.1.2008 to 29-5-2008 in Karnataka. Elections have to be conducted within six months of the declearation of National or state Emergency. 3. Financial Emergency (Art 360) : This kind of emergency can be declared if it is felt that the financial situation in the country has deteriorated. However, it has not been declared till now. Discretionary Powers : The President can exercise certain powers without waiting for approval of the Union Cabinet. They are: 1. He may invite the leader of any party to form the government when no single party has got a majority after an election. 2. When the Parliament approves a Bill and sends it to him for assent, he may return the Bill for re-consideration. 3. He may dissolve the Lok Sabha on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Discuss D i c u s s w i t h your teacher about the situation during Emergency declared in Karnataka. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 71 PRIME MINISTER The Constitution has provided for a Council of Ministers with the Prime Minister as its Head to assist and advise the President in the administration of the country. Still it is the Prime Minister who has the real power to carry out the administration. The President is the Head of the Country, whereas the Prime Minister is the Head of the Government. He remains in office as long as he enjoys the trust of the Lok Sabha. Powers of the Prime Minister Appointment and Removal of Ministers, and Allocation of Port folios : The Prime Minister recommends to the President the appointment of Ministers to the Council of Ministers. He also allocates the various portfolios among the Ministers. His decision is final in the allocation of portfolios. He can remove controversial ministers and those who have been accused of wrong-doing. Head of Government : The Prime Minister is responsible for all actions of the Government. He co-ordinates the activities of the various Ministers. He takes greater interest in framing policies related to planning, defence and foreign affairs. Head of Union Cabinet : The meetings of the Union Cabinet are held under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister. All discussions of issues of national and international importance are discussed and decisions are taken under his chairmanship. He is the link between the President and the Cabinet. Union Cabinet The Union Cabinet is the real Executive, and has Ministers in two hierarchies. The first one is the Cabinet level and the second is the Ministers of State. The maximum strength of the Union Cabinet is 15% of the total strength of the Parliament. The Cabinet has two kinds of responsibilities : The Minister of every department is responsible for the administration of his department. He has individual responsibility for the success or failure of his department. The Union Cabinet has collective responsibility to the Parliament with regard to the decisions and policies taken by it. Therefore, the Cabinet can be in power only @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 72 Sri Morarji Desai 1977-1979 OUR PRIME MINISTERS Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru 1947-1964 Sri Lal Bahadur Shastri 1964-1966 Gulzarilal Nanda 1966 Sri Charan Singh 1979-1980 Sri Rajiv Gandhi 1984-89 Sri V.P. Singh 1989-1990 Sri Chandra Shekhar 1990 Nov.-1991 June Sri. P.V. Narasimharao 1991-1996 Sri. H.D. Devegowda 1996 June-1997 April Sri. I.K. Gujral 1997 April-1998 March Sri. Atal Bihari Vajpayee May 18, 1996-31 May 1996 19 March 1998-May 2004 Dr. Manmohan Singh 2004 - 2014 Smt. Indira Gandhi 1966-77, 1980-84 Sri. Narendra Modi 2014 - @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 73 as long as it enjoys the trust of the Parliament. When it loses the trust, it is removed by a No-Confidence Motion. Do you know this ? No-confidence Motion : If a majority of the Lok Sabha members lose their confidence or withdraw their support to the Prime Minister and his Cabinet, the Prime Minister as well as his cabinet ministers will have to resign. The motion passed by the Lok Sabha members at the Centre and the Vidhana Sabha members at the state level asking for resignation of the ruling party and government at the centre and state respectively because they do not trust them any more is called No-Confidence Motion. Thus, the term of office of the union government and the state government depend on the trust of the Lok Sabha and Vidhana Sabha respectively. Rajya Sabha members and Vidhana Parishat members do not enjoy this privilege. Till now, around 34 No Confidence Motions have been passed in the Indian Parliament. EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. 1. India is a Union of __________. 2. The Union Legislature is called ______________. 3. The Chairman of the Rajya Sabha is the ____________. 4. One has to complete _______ years to become a member of the Lok Sabha. 5. The Commander-in-Chief of the three Armed Forces is the ______________. 6. The process for electing the President is explained under Articles _____ and _____ of the Constitution. 7. The Chairman of the Union Public Service Commission is appointed by_______________. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 74 II. Answer the following questions. 1. Name the two Houses of the Parliament. 2. Explain the composition of the Rajya Sabha. 3. What are the qualifications needed to become a member of the Lok Sabha? 4. Explain the election process for the post of President. 5. List out the powers of the Prime Minister. 6. Explain the composition of the Union Cabinet and its responsibilities. III. Activities : 1. Have a mock Parliament in your school. 2. Meet the legislator of your constituency and discuss his work. IV. Project : 1. Draw a picture of the Parliament and display in your school. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 75 CHAPTER – 7 THE STATE GOVERNMENT We learn about the following in this chapter, • Nature of the State Legislature, the Legislative Assembly (Vidhana Sabha) and Legislative Council (Vidhana Parishat), their membership and functions. • Nature of the State Executive, the Governor, his qualifications and functions. • Nomination of the Chief Minister and his functions. The Union of India comprises 28 States and 8 Union Territories. The State Governments follow the model of the Central Government and thus have the Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. The State Government has the power to frame laws on subjects under the State List and implement them. Some States have two Houses like the Parliament, whereas some states have only the Lower House (Legislative Assembly). Do you know this? The States of Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharastra, Bihar have two houses, where as the other states have only one House. STATE LEGISLATURE The State Legislature (Vidhana Mandala) is composed of the Governor and the two Houses. The Upper House is called Legislative Council (Vidhana Parishat) and the Lower House is called Legislative Assembly (Vidhana Sabha). The Legislative Assembly has representatives of the people whereas the Legislative Council has experts from various fields. Vidhana Sabha The strength of the Vidhana Sabha depends on the population of the State. The strength of the Vidhana Parishat is of the members of the Vidhana Sabha. The maximum number of seats of any Vidhana @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 76 Sabha should not exceed 500 or be below 60. However, the number of seats in small States is less. Ex.In Mizoram and Goa, there are 40 members each. The Vidhana Sabha in Karnataka has 225 members. 224 members are elected whereas one Anglo-Indian is nominated by the Governor. Qualifications for a Legislative Assembly member: 1. Should be a citizen of India. 2. Should have completed 25 years of age. 3. Should not be employed in any office of profit of the Government. 4. Should not have been punished by any court. 5. Should not be of unsound mind. 6. Should not be an insolvent. 7. Should possess the qualifications as decided by the Parliament from time to time. Vidhana Soudha @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 77 Term of office : The members of the Legislative Assembly (Vidhana Sabha) are elected for a term of 5 years. However, the Assembly may be dissolved before the expiry of the full term on the recommendation of the Cabinet. At that time, the State will be under President’s rule. If the Members do not intend to continue in the Assembly, they should submit their resignation to the Speaker. The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker are elected from among the elected Members of the Assembly. The proceedings of the House are carried on under the chairmanship of the Speaker. He has the functions of maintaining the peace, dignity and decorum of the House, summoning and postponing the meetings, safeguarding the rights of the Members, and casting the decisive vote when bills receive equal number of votes supporting and opposing them. Powers and functions of the Legislative Assembly : Legislative powers : The Legislative Assembly has the power to frame laws relating to the subjects mentioned in the State List and the Concurrent List. The Bills have to be passed by both the Houses before they are sent to the Governor for his signature. The Governor may send certain Bills to the President for his approval. Financial powers : The Legislative Assembly has greater powers than the Legislative Council in the matter of finance. The Finance Bill has to be first presented in the Legislative Assembly, and only then in the Legislative Council. Though the Legislative Council does not have the power to reject any Bill, it can delay it for 14 days. Administrative powers: The State Executive is responsible to the Legislative Assembly, and can be in power only as long as it enjoys the trust of the Legislative Assembly. Each Member of the Council of Ministers is individually accountable, and the whole Council of Ministers is accountable to the Legislative Assembly. Activity : Visit the Legislative Assembly at the time of session and List out the points about their discussion Activity : Meet your MLA and discuss the functions of MLA. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 78 Electoral powers : The elected members of the Legislative Assembly has the power to elect the President, Members of the Rajya Sabha and Legislative Council, Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Assembly. Other powers : The Members of the Legislative Assembly discuss bills passed by the Parliament when the need arises. The reports of the State Public Service Commission and other reports are discussed in the Legislative Assembly. Legislative Council (Vidhana Parishat) The Upper House of the State Legislature is called the Legislative Council. The strength of this House is of that of the Legislative Assembly of the State. However, it should not be less than 40. This is the reason why some states do not have a Legislative Council. The number of members of the Karnataka Legislative Council is 75. These members represent 5 fields. Some are elected from among the Members of the Legislative Assembly, Local Bodies, Graduates’ Constituencies, Teacher’s Constituencies. The Governor nominates some Members who are experts in the fields of art, literature, education, social service, science etc. The Legislative Council is a permanent body. Every two years, members who have completed their term retire. Qualifications of the M.L.C.s 1. Should be a citizen of India. 2. Should have completed 30 years of age. 3. Should possess all qualifications as required for an M.L.A. The term of office of the nominated Members is 6 years. Every two years of the Members of the Legislative Council retire. The Chair person and the Deputy Chair person are chosen from among the Members. They assume their powers during the proceedings of the House and ensures dignity and decorum of the House. Powers of the Legislative Council Legislative powers : All bills may be presented in both the Houses, except money bills which as presented first only in Legislation Assembly. After the bill is approved by one House, it is sent to the @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 79 other House. The Legislative Council can withhold a bill for 3 months. However, when the same bill is sent by the Legislative Assembly for the second time, the Council should approve it within one month. If it does not do so, it will be understood that both the Houses have approved the bill and it will be sent to the Governor for his assent. Financial powers : The Legislative Assembly has greater powers over finance than the Legislative Council which can only withhold a finance bill for 14 days. If it does not return the bill after 14 days, it is understood that both the Houses have approved the bill and it is sent to the Governor for his assent. Administrative powers: The Legislative Council does not have much control over administration. It can obtain information by Members posing questions to Ministers. If the questions are not answered properly, it can only insist on the Minister’s resignation but cannot move a No Confidence motion. Discretion powers : The Legislative Council carries on debates about the Government’s programmes, policies, decisions and Acts. As this is the House of Elders’ House, the debates are carried on in a very serious manner. STATE EXECUTIVE The State Executive comprises the Governor, Chief Minister and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet). Though the Governor is the Constitutional Head, the Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister as its Head is the real executive authority. GOVERNOR The President nominates the Governor on the recommendation of the Prime Minister and his Cabinet. Every State is required to have a Governor. However, sometimes two or three States can have a single Governor. Activity : List out the names of the members of your area to parliament & Assembly. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 80 Qualifications, Term of Office, Salary and Perquisites: (1) Should be a citizen of India. (2) Should not be less than 35 years of age. (3) Should not hold any office of profit under the Government. (4) Should not be a Member of either Parliament or State Legislature. If he is a Member of either, he should resign from that post when he is appointed as the Governor. The term of office of the Governor is 5 years. However, he continues to occupy the post even after the completion of this term till a successor is appointed. The President may recall the Governor on the recommendation of the Union Council of Ministers before the expiry of his term. The Governor receives salary and allowances as fixed by the Parliament, and resides at the official residence (Raj Bhavan). His actions cannot be questioned nor can be prosecuted in a court of law. Powers and functions : Legally all executive powers belong to the Governor. However, the Chief Minister and his Council of Ministers exercise these powers. They are: Executive powers : The Governor is the Executive Head and appoints the Chief Minister and the other Ministers on the advice of the Chief Minister. He also appoints the Chairman of the State Public Service Commission, the Vice-Chancellors for all the Universities in the State and other officials. Legislative powers : The Governor has the power to summon, postpone or dissolve the Assembly on the advice of the Chief Minister. He also has the power to nominate one person to the Assembly and of the members to the Legislative Council. He may approve or withhold a bill approved by the Legislature. Financial powers : The Finance Bill cannot be presented in the Legislative Assembly without the permission of the Governor. The Governor has the power to appoint the State Finance Commission and Planning Commission. The State Emergency Fund is in his name Discuss State Government orders are issued in the name of Governor and at the centre the name of president of India. Why ? @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 81 and funds are taken out from it to deal with emergency situations like drought, floods, earthquake etc. Judicial powers : The Governor has the power to pardon those who have been convicted and reduce, postpone or change the punishment given to criminals. He appoints the State Advocate General and District Judges. Discretionary powers: The Governor uses his discretionary powers while appointing the Chief Minister of the State. He may also withhold the bill passed by the legislature and send it to the President, recommend to the President to declare emergency in the State, dismiss the Cabinet or dissolve the Legislative Assembly. State Council of Ministers Our Constitution provides for a Council of Ministers with the Chief Minister as its Head. This Council assists the Governor in administrative matters, and is responsible to the Legislative Assembly. The Council has many functions: 1. It decides the Government’s policies. 2. It prepares the State budget and presents it in the legislature. 3. It advises the Governor in matters of appointment of the Chairman of the State Public Service Commission, its Members, the Lokayukta etc. 4. Each Minister has to ensure efficient working of his Department. 5. It has to co-ordinate and supervise the working of different departments. Chief Minister : The Chief Minister is the Head of the State Government. Success or failure of the State Government depends on his personal charm. He is the repository of all the power of the State. He is the Head of the Council of Ministers, the Legislature, and the Leader of the majority party in the government. The Chief Minister Activity List out the chief ministers of Karnataka from begining to till today. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 82 should be a member of any one of the two Houses. Even those who are not Members of either House can become the Chief Minister. However, he has to become the Member of any one House within six months. Functions and Powers of the Chief Minister : Since the Chief Minister is the most important figure in the Government, he has many functions and powers. They are: 1. He prepares the list of Ministers and, after submitting it to the Governor, forms the Government. 2. He allocates Portfolios to the Ministers. He can also change the portfolios alloted to Ministers. 3. He has the power to remove those Ministers who are not loyal to the Government, act against the Council of Ministers or have criminal record. 4. As Head of Government, he plays a very important role in formulation of policies. 5. As Head of the Cabinet, he can summon or postpone its meetings. 6. He has the power to co-ordinate and supervise the working of all Departments. 7. He has the power to dissolve the Legislative Assembly before expiry of its term. 8. He acts as the link between the Governor and the Council of Ministers. 9. He acts as an advisor to the Governor with regard to nominations to many posts. EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. 1. The Union of India comprises ______States and __________ Union Territories. 2. The ___________ nominates one Anglo-Indian to the State Legislative Assembly. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 83 3. The Karnataka Legislative Council comprises ____________ members. 4. The State Cabinet, comprising the _______________ and the _______________ is the real Executive. 5. The Governor is appointed by the ___________. II. Answer the following questions with gruop discussion. 1. Explain the structure of the Legislative Assembly. 2. Which fields are represented by the members of the Legislative Council? 3. What are the qualifications, and the term of office of the Governor. 4. Write a short note on the Chief Minister. III. Activities : 1. Visit the Karnataka Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council and record the proceedings. 2. Like the State Assembly, form the School parliament and observe the proceedings and make the Report. IV. Projects : 1. Discuss the Assembly proceedings with the M.L.A. of your constituency. 2. Prepare an album of the photographs of Karnataka Chief Ministers till now. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 84 We have a common judicial system for the entire country unlike the American judicial system where there are separate courts for the Centre and the States. Our judiciary is independent of the Legislature and the Executive. The High Courts, Subordinate Courts and District Courts function under the Supreme Court. The Constitution, various Acts, conventions and precedents of cases are the basis for judicial judgments. The Supreme Court is the highest court of law. Its judgment is final. Supreme Court : The Supreme Court came into existence by an Act of Parliament on January 28, 1950. It is in New Delhi. The President appoints the Chief Justice and the other judges of the Supreme Court. At present, there are 31 judges including the Chief Justice. The qualifications of a Supreme Court judge are: 1. Should be a citizen of India. 2. Should have served as a High Court Judge for at least five years, or should have been an advocate of the High Court for at least ten years. 3. Should be a distinguished jurist. We learn about the following in this chapter, • The responsibilities and functions of the Supreme Court and the High Courts, Uniform Judiciary System. • Functions of the various levels of subordinate courts. • Nature and responsibilities of the Lok Adalats. CHAPTER – 8 THE JUDICIARY @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 85 Supreme Court, New Delhi The age of retirement of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is 65 years, whereas the age of retirement of the other judges is 62 years. However, they can resign earlier. If the judges are found guilty while discharging their duties, they can be removed from office by the President supported by a specified majority vote of both the Houses of Parliament. After their resignation or retirement, the judges cannot practise law in any court in India. Their salaries and allowances are decided by an Act of Parliament. Functions and powers Original Powers : Resolving the disputes between the Union and the States, and between the States; Safeguarding the Fundamental Rights of citizens; Interpreting the provisions of the Constitution and Enquires the Habeas Corpus also. Appellate Powers : Citizens may file cases in the Supreme court against the judgements given in the lower courts. The Supreme Court may accept such appeals and issue judgments in these matters. It may also give special directions to the citizens to file such appeals. Advisory Powers : The Supreme Court may advise the President when he seeks its opinion on important public issues. The President may consult the Supreme Court for advice on matters related to agreements and contracts. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 86 In addition to the above-mentioned functions, the Supreme Court serves as a Court of Records, Chief Advisor to the Centre and States, and has the power to issue special writs. High Court The Constitution provides for a High Court in every State. Sometimes there is one High Court for two or more States. The High Court consists of the Chief Justice and other judges. The number of judges varies from State to State. High Court Do you know this? 1. The British established three High Courts in India for the first time in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras in 1862. At present, there are 21 High Courts in India. 2. There is one High Court for the States of Punjab and Haryana. Similarly, there is one High Court in Guwahati in Assam state, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Tripura, Nagaland, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh. 3. In Karnataka along with the high court at Bangalore. There is a court Established in Dharwad and Gulbarga. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 87 Supreme Court State High Court District and Sessions Court Senior Sub-judge (Civil Cases) Chief Judicial Magistrate (Criminal Cases) The qualifications of a High Court judge are : 1. Should be a citizen of India. 2. Should have served as a judiciary officer in a Judicial office. or worked as an advocate of the High Court for ten years. 3. Should be an eminent jurist. The age of retirement of High Court judges is 62 years. Their salary is decided by an Act of the Parliament. The constitutional Amendment Act 15 of 1963 raised the retirement age from 60 to 62. The Union Cabinet approved this and implemented it on 31 July 2010. Functions of the High Court : The High Court has power over the whole State. Its functions are : 1. To take up civil and criminal disputes, marital relationships, contempt of court etc. 2. To admit appeals in civil and criminal cases from the subordinate courts. 3. To direct transfer of cases from the lower courts to the High @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 88 Court; to supervise the working of the subordinate courts; to admit writ petitions to safeguard the Fundamental Rights and other legal rights of citizens. Subordinate Courts The Conference of Courts that was held in 1948 urged for independence to subordinate courts. As a result, specifications about the structure and scope of the subordinate courts have been included in the Constitution. Though subordinate courts differ from State to State, their main features remain the same. Courts have been classified into two kinds, namely: 1. Civil Courts 2. Criminal Courts Civil Court : Every district has a civil court, and the District Judge is its Chief Judge. The Governor appoints the Chief Judge in consultation with the judges of the High Court. The Chief Judge should have served as an advocate in any court of the State for a period of seven years. The other judges are selected through a competitive examination. Civil courts settle disputes related to civil matters like property, land, monetary transactions, marriage, divorce and others. They also hear appeals from lower courts. The District Judge exercises control over all the civil courts in the district. These subordinate courts are under the District Court : 1. Court of Subordinate Judges 2. Court of Additional Subordinate Judges 3. Court of Munsiffs 4. Court of Additional Munsiffs Criminal Court or Magistrate Court : Criminal courts came into existence from 1st April, 1974. They are also known as Activity Visit a civil court a n d o b s e r v e t h e Arguments. Discuss with your teacher. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 89 District Magistrate courts. They function under the High Court. The highest criminal court at the district level is the Sessions court. The District Judge performs the function of a judge of this court too. The court takes up crimes like murder, robbery, dacoity etc. It has the powers to issue death sentences and also life imprisonment sentences. However, such sentences will have to be ratified by the High Court. Similarly, an appeal may be made to the High Court against the judgements given by the criminal court. There are other criminal courts functioning under criminal court: Chief Magistrate Court: This court does not have the powers to pass death sentences or life imprisonment sentences. However, it can impose seven years’ punishment. First Grade Magistrate Court: This court has greater powers and can impose punishment upto 3 years or fine upto Rs.5000/-, or impose both. Moreover, it can admit appeals against judgments from lower Magisterial courts. Second Grade Magistrate Court: This court has the power to impose punishment upto 2 years or a fine of Rs.1000/- or both. Third Grade Magistrate Court: This court has the power only to impose one month’s imprisonment or fine of Rs.50/- or both. Neither the Second Class nor the Third Class Magisterial Courts can admit appeals against judgments of any other court. Thus, both the District and the Sessions courts are one and the same, with the same Judge passing judgments in both. When the court takes up a civil matter, it is called District Court, and when it takes up a criminal matter, it is called Sessions Court. Revenue Courts : There are Revenue courts in every district. They take up cases related to land tax, land records etc. Revenue Courts comprise the following courts: Tahasildar Court : The Tahasildar Court is the lowest court among the Revenue courts and the Tahasildar is its judge. This court is also known as Taluk Magistrate Court. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 90 District Subdivisional Officer’s Court: The Assistant Commissioner is the judge in this court. This court takes up appeals against the decisions and judgments of Tahsildar courts. District Land Tax Court or District Magistrate Court: Existing in every district, this court takes up appeals against the judgments given by the Tahsildar court or the District Subdivisional Officer’s court. The Deputy Commissioner is its judge. Commissioner’s Court: This court takes up appeals against the judgments of the district magistrate courts. The Divisional Officer is its judge. Do you know this? Karnataka has been divided into four divisions for administrative convenience : 1. Bengaluru 2. Mysuru 3. Kalaburagi 4. Belagavi Land Tax Board: This is the highest court dealing with land tax cases. It has the power to take up appeals against the judgments of the lower land tax courts. The Land Tax Secretary is its Head, and the court functions under the supervision of the High Court. People’s Courts (Lok Adalat) In India, the legal procedure is time-consuming and expensive. As an alternative, the Government has set up other forms of legal institutions which function faster and are less expensive. These instituations came into existence in 1985. One of them is Lok Adalat. It takes up cases from parties which mutually agree to settle the cases amicably. Lok Adalats are established only in some states like Gujarat, New Delhi, Karnataka and a few others. Some judges of the Supreme Courts, social workers and young law graduates are the founding members of these courts. Cases which have not yet been disposed off by the other courts or the High Court can be settled by the Lok Adalats. The functioning of the Lok Adalats has drawn appreciation from people, mainly due to three features : 1. It lays stress on compromise. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 91 2. It is fast and cheap. 3. It reduces the judicial burden on other courts. Lok Adalats take up cases relating to vehicle accidents, land possession, banking, marriage and alimony, labourers’ problems etc. These courts are established by either the District Law Authority or the Taluk Law Authority. There are two mediators in it, one in government service and the other a social volunteer. The judgements given by the Lok Adalats are final and binding on both the parties, and appeals cannot be filed against them. These judgements enjoy the same respect that judgements of civil courts do. EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. 1. The Supreme Court came into existence on ______________. 2. The State Advocate General is appointed by the ____________. 3. Criminal courts came into existence on ___________. 4. The lowest land tax court is the ____________________. II. Answer the following questions. 1. How are the judges of the Supreme Court appointed and what are their qualifications? 2. What are the functions of the High Court? 3. Which are the subordinate courts under the Civil Courts? 4. What was the purpose of establishing Lok Adalats? When did they come into existence? III. Activities : 1. Meet an advocate in your town and learn more about the Supreme Court. 2. Visit the subordinate courts in your area. Watch what happens there. Prepare a brief report on your experience. IV. Project : 1. Collect reports of High Court judgments from newspapers and prepare an album. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 92 SOCIOLOGY CHAPTER – 9 FAMILY We learn about the following in this chapter, • Meaning of ‘Family’ • Relationships among the members of the family • Stages in the development of the individual Family The system of Family is strongly rooted in India. Relationship among the members of family is an ancient traditional arrangement. Family is a unit of society. It is like a living cell. The community develops from a family, leading to the creation of a nation. The family rests on the support of emotional pillars. The mother’s love, the father’s affection, understanding between the husband and wife, the desire to beget children and nurture them act as the pillars supporting the family. In the contemporary Indian family, the parents discuss with their children before taking decisions. Whether it is a matter of purchasing some material, giving a gift or matter related to discipline in children, or income and expenditure of the family. The mother’s role is important. The mother enjoys equal rights in all responsible decisions taken. Features of a family Family is universal. It is a social system seen in all times and all countries. It is the core of society. It is from the family that neighbourhoods, villages, cities and nations have evolved. Right from their childhood, the members of the family not only realise their social responsibilities but also understand co-operation. The social traditions, morality and behavior are all controlled by the family. Thus the family is called a universal, permanent and traditional structure. Mother-father, husband-wife and children : Marriage is a universal and a sacred social institution. It creates mutual rights and responsibilities between father-mother, husband-wife and children. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 93 According to the Indian tradition, taking care of the wife and children is the responsibility and duty of the husband. Looking after children and educating them are the duties of the parents. Caring the elderly is culturally rooted in the families. Childhood and youth : Childhood and youth occupy an important place in the social development of an individual. Not only does the child learn the mother tongue but also the fundamental social tenets. A child growing in a familial and social atmosphere develops related characteristics and gains friendly relations with other children of the same age. By mingling with others, the child develops leadership qualities, social behavior, his/her requirements and restrictions that influences a child resulting in the formation of healthy social relationships. Later in youth, it leads to friendship, independence, security and social acceptance. The behaviour and habits developed in the youth continue in the adult and old ages. Families and generations : The unit of family rests on the support of many several generations. It has many blood relatives belonging to different generations. This phenomenon is seen in all societies. Grandparents belong to the first generation, parents to the second and children to the third generation. Based on the members of different generations present in a family, families are classified as mentioned below : I. Family consisting of parents and children. This is called Nuclear or Divided family (minimum two generations) II. A family consisting of father-mother, children and grandchildren is called a Joint or Undivided family (minimum 3 to 4 generations). Types of families : Families are classified based on different principles. Based on authority, a family can be classified as Patriarchal or Matriarchal. Based on marriage, it can be classified as Monogamy, Bigamy or Polygamy. Based on size, it can be classified as Undivided or Divided family. 1. Patriarchal family : A family in which the father is the head and has all assets in his name is called a Patriarchal family. This type of family system was prevalent in ancient India,China, Rome, Egypt and other countries and is in existence even today. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 94 2. Matriarchal family : A family in which the mother is the head having all property and assets in her name is called Matriarchal family. The Nair community in Calicut in Kerala state and tribal communities in the north-eastern states of India have this sytem. 3. Modern nuclear family : Based on the structure of the family and the number of generations present in it, a family is classified as either Divided or Undivided family. A family having husband, wife and their unmarried children is called a modern nuclear family. This type is also called Primary family, Individual family or Divided family. This familial system is prevalent in the present society. Privacy, personal happiness, self-contentment, property rights, changing social values, geographical and social structure, advances in science and technology, industrialisation, urbanisation, principles of democracy and equality, decline of religious faith and thinking, spread of materialistic attitude, freedom of women have become responsible for the increase in the number of this type of family. The main features seen in the modern family are : 1. Modernity 2. Complexity 3. Small size 4. Loose social control 5. Enhanced freedom of members Undivided family In an undivided family, there will be people of more than two generations consisting of parents, their children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren. Normally it is a group of people living under one roof, eating food prepared in one kitchen, having equal rights to the property, engaging in same type of worship and having specific blood relatives. Features of an Joint family: Large size : Blood relatives live permanently in the same house. The size of the family is big. Property : All the members of the family are owners of the property. Utilisation of the property is done in a harmonious manner. An undivided family runs on the basis Do this yourself : T r a c e y o u r o l d e r generations from the time of your great-grandfather till today, and with the help of your elders, draw a family tree. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 95 of interpersonal co-operation of all the members. Its head acts as a religious head. It is only with the permission of all the members that any sale or transfer of property is done. Residence : All the members of the family normally live under the same roof. Even when one son has a family of his own with a wife and children, he continues the earlier relationship with the core family. The new family is considered a part of the undivided family. Kitchen : The members of an undivided family usually prepare the food in the same kitchen and consume it together. Religion : Normally all the members of an undivided family follow the same religion. They worship the same gods. Rites and rituals, daily worship form a part of the daily routine of such families. Self-indepent : An undivided family is mostly self-independent. It Undivided family Activity : Talk to your father and learn about the number of members (male-female) in the undivided family of your grandfather. Also get to know the duties and responsibilities of your grandfather. Activity : List out the values of undividided families. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 96 encompasses the lives of its members completely. It fulfills the majority of their needs. All members share the household chores. The work is divided according to the effort needed to do the job, the members’ age and gender. Structure of authority : The oldest member of the undivided family has the authority to take decisions. Even when he transfers it, the policy of seniority in age is followed. EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. 1. The living cell of the society is ____________. 2. When the father is the head of the family, that family is called _________________ family. 3. _________________ family is seen among the Nairs of Malabar in Kerala. II. Answer the following questions. 1. The family is a unit of society. How? 2. Name the different kinds of families. 3. What do you mean by ‘Undivided Family’? 4. What is meant by ‘Nuclear Family’? 5. What are the features of a family? 6. Describe the role of childhood and youth in the social developmental stages of an individual. 7. Describe the features of an undivided family. 8. What are the reasons for the increase in the number of divided families? @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 97 III. Activities : 1. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of divided and undivided families. 2. Visit a tribal area and learn about their family system. IV. Projects : 1. Collect more information about matriarchal and patriarchal families. 2. Discuss with your elders and draw a family tree from the time of your great-grandfather to your time. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 98 GEOGRAPHY CHAPTER - 10 OUR STATE KARNATAKA - PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS We learn about the following in this chapter, • The greatness of our state and its heritage. • The origin of the name ‘Karnataka’ and the form of the state. • The geographical location, size, land and water frontiers, and neighbouring states of Karnataka. • The features of Karnataka. • Physical divisions of Karnataka. • The hills and highest peaks of Karnataka. In the previous class, you have studied about physical geography. In this lesson we will study about our state Karnataka, the land of Kannadigas. It is one of the Indian States which has its own greatness and heritage. Our land has an ideal situation and is blessed with diverse relief features, flora and fauna, different types of soil, river systems, minerals and human resources. It is a prosperous land with its own literature, art and culture and has religious, spiritual and historically famous pilgrim centres. Many places in karnatka are famous for their world heritage sites and its natural beauty and abundance of wild life. Origin of the name : The name ‘Karnataka’ has been in use from ancient times. This land used to be called ‘Karunadu’ (kar+nadu = a land of black soil). The word ‘Karunat’ refers to Karnataka in the ancient Tamil work ‘Shilappadikaram’. Karunat means the land which is on a elevated plateau. It has been mentioned in Nrupatunga’s grammatical work Kavirajamarga that Karnataka extended from the Cauvery river upto the Godavari river. After Independence, India was divided into many states. In 1953, nine southern districts which were till then under the rule of the Mysuru kings, were brought together to form the ‘Mysuru State’. Later, when the States were reorganized on linguistic basis, areas with Kannada-speaking people in Bombay, Hyderabad, Madras and Kodagu provinces were brought together. Thus, on 1st November 1956, the’ Vishal Mysuru State’ came into being. It is in fond commemoration of this event that Rajyotsava is celebrated every year on 1stNovember. In 1973, in response to the wishes of Kannadigas, our State was renamed as Karnataka. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 99 Geographical Location Karnataka is one of the 28 States of India. It is situated in the Southern part of India, in the Western Central area of the peninsular region. It extends from 110 -31I North to 180 -45I North latitude and 740 -12I East to 780 -40I East longitude. Its length is 750 km., stretching from Aurad taluk in Bidar district in the northern-most tip of the State to Chamarajnagar district in the south. Its width is 400 km. from west to east. Karwar in Uttar Kannada district is at the western end whereas Mulbagal taluk in Kolar district is at the eastern end. Karnataka state has both land and water frontiers too. The Arabian Sea in the west, states of Maharashtra in the Location of Karnataka in India KARNATAKA IN INDIA @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 100 north, Andhra Pradesh in the east, Tamil Nadu in the south and south-east, Kerala in the south-west, and Goa in the north-west form its frontiers. The shape of Karnataka resembles a cashewnut. Size Karnataka stretches over an area of 1,91,791 sq.kms. It is India’s eighth largest state with regard to area, and according to the 2011 census, it has the ninth position, with a population of 6,11,30,704. KARNATAKA Districts and District Headquarters Districts and District headquarters Vijayapura Kalaburagi Belagavi Shivamogga Chikkamagaluru Tumakuru Bengaluru Bengaluru Mysuru @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 101 Karnataka occupies 5.83 % of India’s geographical area. At present, there are 30 districts in our State. These districts comprises 176 taluks, 747 hoblies, 347 towns and cities and 27,481 villages. Belagavi district is the largest in size, and Bengaluru Urban district is the smallest. Bengaluru is the capital of Karnataka. The State has been divided into four divisions for administrative convenience. They are: Bengaluru, Mysuru, Belagavi and Kalaburagi. Physical Divisions Karnataka state is a part of peninsular India and has diverse physical features. Its southern part consists of undulating to potography, whereas the northern part is a vast plain. There is great contrast between the Coastal areas and Malnad region. The land slopes slightly towards the east and steeply towards the west. This is traversed by many ridges with valleys and gorges. Most of the area of the state is 450 to 900 meters above sea level. Some areas are more than 1800 meters above sea level. On the basis of structure and relief, Karnataka can be divided into three important physical divisions : 1. The Coast 2. The Malnad and 3. The Maidan. 1. The Coast As a result of the reorganization of states on linguistic basis, Karnataka aquired sea coast and coastal plains as part of its territory. This physical division lies between the Arabian Sea and the Malnad region. The coastline extends to 320 kms from Mangaluru in the south to Karwar in the north. Its width varies from 12 to 64 kms. It is broad in the south and becoming narrow (with steep slopes) towards the north. Its height is more than 200 meters above sea level. It is called the ‘Canara or the Karnataka Coastline’. Many fast flowing rivers cut through the coastal areas is formed by sea erosion. The rivers have formed estuaries. However, there are no deltas in this area. There are many ports along the coastline. Among them, ‘New Mangaluru’ is the major port in Karnataka. Bhatkala, Malpe, Karwar, Kumta, Belekere and Honnavar are fishing ports. Many beautiful beaches are formed along the sea-coast, attract tourists. Some of the prominent beaches are Panambur, Ullal and Someswara beaches near Do you know this : Bidar, Raichur, Kalaburagi, Koppal, Yadgir, Ballari and Vijayanagara districts of Hyderabad, Karnataka, are provided a special status by the central Government. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 102 Mangaluru, Malpe near Udupi, Karwar in the north, Murdeshwar near Honnavar, Maravanthe and Om beach near Gokarna. There are some small islands located near the sea-coast. Among them are St. Mary’s Island (Coconut Island), near Malpe, Anja near Karwar and Devgadh, Kanjigudda islands are notable. The main occupation of the people near the coast is fishing. Agriculture is also another important occupation. Crops like cashew, coconut, arecanut, cardamom and paddy are grown here. Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Uttarakannada are the coastal districts of Karnataka. 2. The Malnad The Western Ghats in our state are referred to as Malnad or the land of hills. They are also called the Sahyadris. Malnad runs parallel to the coastline from north to south. They have steep terrace like slopes in the west and gentle slope to the east. Hence they are called Ghats. They are 650 kms in length and 50-76 kms in width. The height ranges from 900 to 1500 meters from sea level. These hills obstruct the rain-bearing winds from the Arabian Sea and cause heavy rains often more than 200 cms. The highest peaks in this region are Mullaiyanagiri, Kudremukh, Kalhattagiri, Rudragiri and Deveerammanagudda. All these Peaks are in Chikkamagaluru district. Besides these the other peaks of Malnad region are Ballalarayanadurga, Mertigudda, Do you know this? • The New Mangaluru Port is called ‘The Gateway to Karnataka’. • St.Mary’s Island is referred locally as ‘Tonsepaar’. • There is a Netrani island near Murudeswara and it has plenty of pigeon. So it is known as ‘pigeon island’. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 103 Pushpagiri and Kodachadri. Among them, Mullaiyanagiri (1913 mtrs) is the highest peak in the State. The routes, from the eastern plains of Karnataka to the coastal plains across the Western Ghats are called the mountain passes. The important passes are : 1. Charmadi Ghat - It links Mangaluru and Chikkamagaluru. 2. Shiradi Ghat - It links Hassan - Sakleshpur and Mangaluru. 3. Agumbe Ghat - It links Shivamogga and Udupi. 4. Hulikal Ghat - It links Shivamogga and Kundapur. Since Malnad region receives heavy rainfall, it has attractive hill resort covered with dense evergreen forests. It is the birthplace of many rivers which, when they fast down the steep slopes, form wonderful waterfalls. The Jogfalls (Sharavathi river), is the highest waterfall of India. The other prominent water falls are the Unchalli, Magod, Gokak, Shivanasamudra and Abbey falls. The rivers have led to the formation of valleys and gorges. Coffee, tea, rubber plantations and spices are grown abundantly on the slopes. Since coffee is grown widely in Chikkamagaluru, it is called ‘The Land of Coffee’. Kodagu district is known as the ‘Kashmir of Karnataka’ because of its cool weather. As oranges are grown abundantly in Kodagu district, it is also referred to as the ‘Land of Oranges’. At present, Malnad has been identified as ‘Biodiversity Zone’ and protected. Hassan, Kodagu, Shivamogga and Chikkamagaluru are the districts of Malnad region. 3. The Maidan (Plain) To the east of Malnad is a vast plain with a height of approximately 450 to 760 meters. This area is irrigated by the Krishna, the Tungabhadra and the Cauvery. There are many ridges in this area. It has land sloping towards the east, rising in height from north to south. The maidan can be divided into two parts : (i) The Northern maidan (ii) The Southern maidan. Activity In which of the Physical division is your district situated? Name your neighbouring districts. Make a list of special features of your district. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 104 i) The Northern maidan : It is a vast plain land with black soil, and is an extensive plateau. It is around 365 to 610 meters above sea level. Hills and hillocks can be seen at different places. Prominent among them are Naragund hill, Parasagada gudda, Gurumitkalgudda and Ilkal gudda. Areas to the east of Saudatti and Badami have limestone with faulting. It has produced rugged landforms. The most important waterfall of the region is Gokak falls. it is 62mts height and created by the Gataprabha river. Chayabhagavathi and Sogala are the other water falls in this region. The districts of Bidar, Vijayapura, Kalaburagi, Yadgiri, Gadag, Koppal, Raichur, Ballari, Haveri, Bagalkot and some parts of Dharwad and Belagavi districts are located in the northern maidan. This region is very hot in summer and it is called the ‘land of sunshine’. Dry crops like jowar, bajra, groundnut, cotton and pulses are mainly grown here. ii) The Southern maidan : This area extends from the Tungabhadra river basin in the north to Chamrajnagar district in the south. It is a plateau with abundant red soil. It has uneven surface with many ups and downs, and has a height of 900 to 975 meters. It is higher than the northern maidan and slopes towards the east. There are many hills. They are, Chitradurga hills, Narayana durga, Savanadurga and Shivaganga in Bengaluru rural district, Madhugiri hill in Tumakuru district is the biggest ‘monolith hill’ in Asia, Nandi hills, Chennakeshava hill, Kavaledurga and Skandagiri hill (Harihareswara hill) in Chikkaballapura district, Adichunchanagiri hills in Mandya district, Biligirirangana hill, Malemadeswara hill, Himad gopalaswamy hills Mullaiyanagiri Madhugiri - a single rock hill @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 105 in Chamarajanagar district, Chamundi hill in Mysuru district are prominent.This area is in the rain-shadow of the Western Ghats. The Cauvery, Palar and Pennar are the important rivers flowing through this region. Ragi, paddy, sugarcane, groundnut, mulberry, vegetables, a variety of fruits and flowers are the main crops grown here. Davanagere, Chitradurga, Tumakuru, Kolar, Mandya, Mysuru and Chamarajnagar districts are in the Southern maidan. EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words : 1. We celebrate Kannada Rajyotsava on ____________. 2. The year in which the State was named as Karnataka is _____. 3. The State to the east of Karnataka is __________ . 4. The largest district in Karnataka is ___________ 5. The total area of Karnataka is ___________ sq.kms. 6. _________ island is located near Malpe. 7. ____________ are called Sahyadris. 8. Agumbe Ghat links __________ and ___________. 9. ____________ district is known as the Kashmir of Karnataka. II. Discuss in groups and answer the following questions : 1. Give the latitudinal and longitudinal extent of Karnataka. 2. Name our neighbouring states. 3. Which are the four administrative divisions of Karnataka? 4. Explain the geographical location of Karnataka in India. 5. Mention the important physical divisions of Karnataka. 6. Write a note on the relief features of Malnad region. 7. Give an account on the coastal plains of Karnataka. 8. Name the main hills of Southern maidan. 9. Mention the mountain passes in the Western Ghats. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 106 III. Match the following : A B 1. Jogfalls a. Mangaluru 2. Om beach b. Northern maidan 3. Nandi hill station c. Sharavati river 4. Monolith hill d. Gokarna 5. Land of sunshine e. Chikballapur g. Madhugiri IV. Activities : 1. Draw an outline map of Karnataka, mark and name its districts and also indicate the latitudinal and longitudinal positions. 2. Mark and name the coastal districts and the districts of Malnad on the map of Karnataka and collect pictures of famous waterfalls. V. Project : 1. Draw an outline map of your district/town/city with the help of your teacher, indicate its latitudinal and longitudinal positions and mark the neighboring districts. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 107 CHAPTER - 11 NATURAL DIVERSITY OF KARNATAKA We learn about the following in this chapter, • The main features of the climate of Karnataka. • Know about the seasonal changes in the climate of Karnataka. • Understand the seasonal distribution of rainfall in Karnataka and its effects. • Types and distribution of soil in Karnataka. • The types, distribution of natural vegetation and animals of Karnataka. CLIMATE Karnataka has tropical monsoon climate. The main characteristies of this climate are hot and moist summers and cool and dry winters. But there is diversity in the climate of the state. The main reason for this diversity are the influence of geographical location, oceans, physical features, vegetation and monsoon winds. Hence the annual temperature and distribution of rain are not the same all over the state. Climatic Seasons : We can classify the climate of Karnataka over a period of one year, as can be done with the climate of India, into four parts: 1. The summer season (March to May) 2. The rainy season (June to September) 3. The period of Retreating Monsoons (October – November) 4. The winter season (December – February) 1. Summer Season : During this season, it is very hot, dry and sultry. After March, the temperature rises uniformly all over the state and reaches the maximum during April and May. Raichur has recorded the temperature of 45.60 Celsius and it is the hottest place in Karnataka. The temperature is high even in the other districts of @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 108 the northern maidan. In general, the whole of Karnataka experiences hot climatic conditions during at this time. The humidity is lower in the northern maidan than in the southern maidan. In summer, due to great evaporation, rain-bearing clouds are produced and they bring convectional rain along with lightning and thunder. The Hailstones fall in some places. This generally takes place for a short time during the afternoon. Since these showers enable the flowering of coffee plants, they are called ‘Cherry Blossoms’, and since they help the mango crop, they are also known as ‘Mango showers’. About 7% of the annual rainfall of the state occur during this season. 2. The Rainy Season: This is also known as the season of SouthWest Monsoon winds. The Western Ghats check the moistureladen winds blowing from the Arabian Sea, resulting in heavy rain. As it moves eastward, the amount of rainfall gets reduced. This is because, the eastern maidan is in the rainshadow area. Agumbe is an area of heavy rainfall. Hence it is called ‘Cheerapunji of South India’. Bhagamandala and Hulikal are the other places of heavy rainfall. Nayakna Hatti near Chellakere in Chitradurga records the lowest rainfall. During this season, in the entire state the temperature is very high. As a result the relative humidity @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 109 is very high. There is cloudy atmosphere throughout. During this season, Karnataka receives about 80% of its rainfall. This helps in the cultivation of Kharif crops. 3. The Period of Retreating Monsoon : This is also called the North-East Monsoon Season. Due to the decrease in temperature and increase in pressure, the winds blow from the north –east to the south- west. These winds are dry because they blow from the land. The winds which blow from the Bay of Bengal bring a little rain to the districts of the southern maidan. Besides due to the cyclones coming from the Bay of Bengal during November – December, rainfall occurs. During this season, the state receives about 12% of the rainfall. In this period, the weather condition are uncertain. 4. The Winter Season : During this season, temperature, humidity and rainfall are low. The sky is clear. The average temperature is between 250 and 270C. January is the month which records the lowest temperature. This is called ‘the Tourist Month of the State’. The minimum temperature recorded in Belagavi is (6.70C). There is low temperature in other Northern districts. i.e. Vijayapura, Kalaburagi and Bidar. Rainfall during winter is minimum. Only one percent of the total rainfall is received during this time. There is heavy fog occasionally early in the mornings. Distribution of Rainfall : The Malnad and coastal plains receive heavy rain fall. The Eastern Maidans are the areas of low rainfall. Often drought and floods occur due to uneven and uncertain rainfall. SOILS OF KARNATAKA The top thin layer of the earth surface is called soil. Fertile soil is essential for agriculture. There are different kinds of soils in Karnataka. The soils of Karnataka have been classified into four types: (1) Red soil, (2) Black soil, (3) Laterite soil, (4) Coastal Alluvial soil. 1) Red Soil : This type of soil is obtained from the weathering of granite and gneiss. It contains iron oxides and hence it is red in colour. It is rich in iron, lime and salt, but contain small amounts of Activity : Among the summer, winter and rainy seasons which one you like? Why? Given reason. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 110 humus. It is light, has thin layers and it is not very fertile. Its capacity to moisture retention is less. It is widely distributed in Karnataka, and found more in south Karnataka. Ragi, jower, bajra millets, pulses, tobacco and groundnut which are rain-fed crops, can be grown in this soil. Areas with irrigation facilities can grow paddy, sugarcane, potato, vegetables, banana, coconut and arecanut. Red soil is found in Tumakuru, Bengaluru, Ramanagara, Chikkaballapura, Kolara, Chamarajanagara, Mandya and Mysuru. 2) Black Soil : This kind of soil is formed by the weathering of basalt rocks. It is rich in aluminium, magnesium and oxides of iron. Hence it is black in colour. It is also called ‘black cotton soil’. This soil has the ability to retain moisture for many days. Since it is rich in soil nutrients, a variety of crops can be grown in this soil. For example ; cotton, jowar, maize, sunflower, chilli, paddy, pulses and onion. This type of soil is extensively found in districts of North Karnataka. eg., : Dharwad, Gadag, Ballari, Koppal, Kalaburagi, Yadgir, Bagalkot, Belagavi and Chitradurga. 3) Laterite Soil : This kind of soil is found in areas which receive heavy rainfall and have h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e . Water-soluble lime and silicates dissolved in rain water settle down in the lower layers. Iron and aluminium, which are non-soluble, remain in the top layers. The soil @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 111 becomes soft during rainy season and dries up during summer, leading to the formation of laterite rock. This rock is used for construction purposes. Cashew, coffee, tea, cardamom, pepper, rubber, coconut and other commercial crops are grown in this soil. Uttara Kannada, Udupi, Dakshina Kannada, Kodagu, Chikkamagaluru, Shivamogga and Belagavi have more of this soil. 4) Coastal Alluvial Soil : This type of soil is formed along the coast due to the deposition of alluvium and sediments carried by the rivers and sea waves. As such, the coastal districts of Karnataka like Udupi, Dakshina Kannada and Uttara Kannada have this type of soil. This soil consists of sand and clay. It is very rich in organic nutrients. Paddy, cashew, coconut, arecanut, banana and other crops grow well in this type of soil. NATURAL VEGETATION The various kinds of plants and trees growing naturally are referred to as ‘Natural Vegetation’. Karnataka has a rich diversity of plant species. The plant species play an important role in preserving the ecological balance. The trees provide timber, firewood, raw material for industries, medicinal herbs, honey, bamboo, cane etc. The forests being the habitat of wild animals, we can see tiger, lion, cheetahs, wild buffaloes, elephants, deer and peacocks in the forests of Karnataka. These forests are also places of entertainment and tourism. They help to control environmental pollution. Sandalwood is a special tree grown in forests of Karnataka. Perfume, objects with intricate carvings soap and medicines are manufactured from sandalwood. They are popular all over the world, and hence are not only supplied to other parts of the country but also exported to foreign countries. This is the reason Karnataka is known as ‘the Land of Sandalwood’. Types of Vegetation Natural Vegetation of Karnataka has been classified on the basis of rainfall, relief features and type of soil. They are : 1) Evergreen forests, 2) Deciduous forests, 3) Mixed Forests and 4) Grasslands and Shrubs. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 112 1) Evergreen forests : Areas receiving more than 250 cms rainfall annually have this kind of forests. On account of heavy rain and high temperature, the trees grow tall and dense. These forests, being dense, are impenetrable. The sunlight does not reach the ground at all. Different types of tall trees like rosewood, mahogany, kino, teak, dhupa, and hebbalasu grow in these forests. At the base of these trees are thick shrubs. Different types of spices - cinnamon, cardamom, cloves and medicinal herbs grow in abundance. This kind of forests can be seen in parts of Uttara Kannada, Dakshina Kannada, Shivamogga, Hasana, Chikkamagaluru, Chamarajanagara and Kodagu districts. 2) Deciduous forests : After winter, due to lack of moisture in the soil the trees shed their leaves. The leaves reappear during spring. These are called deciduous forests. This kind of forests can be seen in areas receiving 60 to 120 cms of rainfall annually. For example, Chikkamagaluru, Mysuru, Chamarajanagara, eastern parts of Hassan, Tumakuru, Chikkaballapura, southern part of Kolara, Mandya, Ramanagara and Bengaluru Rural district. Teak, kino, mahogany, neem, mango, jack, flame, kokko, banyan, sandal and bamboo grow in plenty. These forests are not dense. 3) Mixed forests : The growing of evergreen and deciduous trees together form the mixed forests. Areas receiving 120 to 150 cms annual rainfall have this kind of forests. For @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 113 example, Udupi, some parts of Uttara Kannada, Dakshina Kannada, eastern parts of Kodagu, Chikkamagaluru, Hasana and Mysuru districts. Teak, kino, mahogany, axle, sandal, jack and bamboo grow in abundance. These trees have commercial value. 4) Grasslands and Shrubs : Areas receiving less than 60 cm annual rainfall have this kind of vegetation. Due to scanty rain and dry weather there is short grass, thorny shrubs and scrub vegetation, for example ; cactus, acacias, babul, bela, palm trees, hanchi, kunti grass etc. Occasionally banyan, neem, peepul tree, palas trees grow here and there. This type of Vegetation is seen in Bidar, Kalaburagi, Yadgir, Raichur, Koppal, Vijayapura, Ballari, Chitradurga and other areas. Deltas, estuaries and beaches in coastal areas have a peculiar type of vegetation that has aerial roots and can grow in salty water. These are called ‘mangrove forests’. Distribution of such vegetation is limited in Karnataka. Areas which are more than 1400 mts above sea level have cool climate, for example, Kudremukh, Bababudangiri (Inam Dattatreya Peeta) Biligiriranganabetta (B.R.Hills) and Brahmagiri in Kodagu. They have grassy slopes. The deep valleys with streams, rills etc. have distinct “Shola forests”. Distribution of forests The recorded forest area in Karnataka state is 43.4 lakh sq. kms. This forms 22.6 % of the total geographical area. Karnataka occupies the seventh place in forest resources in the country. Uttara Kannada district has the maximum forest area. Next to it are Shivamogga and Chamarajanagara districts. Vijayapura district has the least forest area. FAUNA Karnataka has a variety of Fauna thanks to the abundant forest wealth. The Sahyadris rank among the hotspots of the world for their bio-diversity. Recently they have been declared as a ‘World Heritage Know this : • A big banyan tree at Ramohalli near Bengaluru. • A b i g n e e m tree is found at T. venkatapura, near Siddlagatta. • A big tamrind tree is near Savanur @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 114 Area’. Nearly 25% of the animal population and 10% of the tiger population in the entire country are found in Karnataka. In addition to this, there are other types of wild animals too, for eg. : Leopards, boar, bison, stag, deer, bear, porcupine etc. A variety of snakes and colourful birds can also be seen in the forests of Karnataka. The central part of the Western Ghats in Karnataka is called Malnad and has retained its natural bio-diverse heritage. As such, this area has a rich variety of animal resources. The important forest areas of Karnataka having wildlife are: Coastal region comprising of Uttara Kannada and Belagavi, Sahyadris-Malnad range eg., : Bababudangiri range (Inam Dattatreya Peeta), B.R.hills, Malemahadeswara hills, Gopalaswamy hills etc., in the southern maidan. Ranebennur is the main animal sanctuary in northern maidan. Now Karnataka has 5 national parks, 4 bird sanctuaries and about 17 wild life sanctuaries. Know this : • There are 3 Tiger projects in Karnataka, Bandipura, Bhadra and Nagarahole. • The famous bird sanctuary of Karnataka is Ranganatittu. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 115 EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. 1. The months of _________________ form Summer season. 2. The season with heavy rainfall is _______________. 3. Extensively soil found in North Karnataka is _________. 4. The area that has evergreen forests is ___________ . 5. The district that has large forest area in Karnataka is ___________ . II. Discuss in groups and answer the following questions. 1. Name the four seasons of Karnataka. 2. Write a note on the rainy season in Karnataka. 3. Mention the types of soils in Karnataka. 4. Name the types of natural vegetation of Karnataka. 5. Why is Karnataka known as ‘the Land of Sandalwood’? 6. Name the wild animals in our forests. III. Match the following. A B 1) Adichunchanagiri a) Bird Santuary 2) Mandagadde b) National forest 3) Nagarahole c) Deciduous forest 4) Sandalhood tree d) Peacock Sanctuary e) Red soil IV. Activity : 1) Collect pictures of wild animals of Karnataka and prepare an album. Make a list of bird sanctuaries and wild life sanctuaries. V. Project : 1) Discuss in groups and write an account of the vegetation found in your native district. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 116 CHAPTER - 12 WATER RESOURCES OF KARNATAKA We learn about the following in this chapter, • Important rivers of Karnataka. • Different types of irrigation in Karnataka. • Importance of hydro-electric power stations. • Major dams of Karnataka. RIVERS OF KARNATAKA: Rivers are the main source, water. The rivers of Karnataka can be divided into two groups : east flowing rivers and west flowing rivers. 1) Th e E a s t F low in g Rivers : The Krishna, the Cauvery, the Pennar and Palar rivers flows east wards and join the Bay of Bengal. The Krishna is the second important river of Do you know this? • River Malaprabha joins the Krishna at Kudalasangama. • Kudli is the confluence of Tunga and Bhadra rivers. • Hemavathi river joins the cauvery near K.R. Sagar. Let us know this : River Cauvery has three waterfalls along its course namely-Chunchunkatte, S h i v n a s a m u d r a a n d Hogenakal, and three islands-Shrirangapattana, S i v a n a s a u m d r a a n d Shriranga @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 117 South India. It takes birth at Mahabaleshwar and flows 1,392 kms eastwards to join the Bay of Bengal. But it flows for only 480 km. through Karnataka. The Bhima, Koyna, Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha and Malaprabha are its tributaries. Irrigation and hydroelectric power generation from the Krishna river system have benefited in Northern Karnataka. The Cauvery is the most important river of Karnataka. It is known as ‘Dakshina Ganga’. It originates at Talacauvery in Kodagu district and flows 804 kms through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu eastwards and join the Bay of Bengal. It flows for only 380 kms in Karnataka. Many tributaries join this river, for example, the Hemavathi, Harangi, Lokapavani, Arkavathi, Shimsha, Lakshmanatirtha, Kapila, Suvarnavati and Bhavani. This river is most useful for agriculture, power generation and drinking water supply. The Pennar and Palar rivers flow through the districts of Kolar, Tumakuru and Bengaluru, and then enter Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. North Pennar and South Pennar are two separate rivers. 2. The west flowing Rivers : Many rivers rise in Malnad, flow westwards and join the Arabian Sea, for example : the Sharavathi, Kali, Gangavali (Bedti), Netravathi, Varahi, Aghanashini etc. They flow down steep slopes and create waterfalls. They also helps to produced hydro-electric power. Jog Falls on Sharavati river is world-famous. It is the highest waterfall in India (293 mtrs). The other important waterfalls are: Gokak (on Ghataprabha), Bandaje (on Netravathi), Unchalli (on Aghanashini), Chaya Bhagavati (on Don river), Chunchunkatte, Shimsha, Gaganachukki, Bharachukki (on Cauvery), Magodu waterfall (on Bedthi) etc. IRRIGATION IN KARNATAKA The artificial supply of water for agriculture is called irrigation. It is essential for the development of agriculture in places where the distribution of rainfall is uneven and irregular. It has been Do you know this? sRiver Pennar is also known as pinakini. Southern Pennar is known as Ponnaiyar in Tamil Nadu. Do you know this Large tanks in Karnataka Mudagadakere (near Kadur), Tonnur kere (near Pandavapura), Hyrige (Hunsur), Ramasamudra kere (Chikkaballapura), Byrasagara kere (Gudibande), Kallambella kere (Sira), Byramanala kere (Bidadi) @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 118 an ancient practice in Karnataka to carry on farming through the different sources of irrigation. The main sources of irrigation are wells, canals and tanks. In early days wells were dug in villages for the purpose of irrigation. Later, the practice of constructing canals to supply water from rivers for farming was started. Big tanks can be seen even now. For example : Shantisagar (Sulekere) in Davanagere district. The wells dug in Kalaburagi district during the 11th century, the Tungabhadra canals of the time of Vijayanagar empire, Vanivilasagar and the Krishnarajasagar dam constructed by the Mysuru kings are milestones in the development of the irrigation in Karnataka. At present, both river water and underground water are used for irrigation. Nearly 26.2 % of the cultivable land is under irrigation facility in Karnataka. Karnataka has occupies the 9th position in India with regard to irrigation. Raichur district has the largest area under canal irrigation in the state. Tank irrigation is maximum in Shivamogga district, whereas Belagavi district has the maximum well irrigation facilities. In recent times, the number of tube wells has increased. When the land under irrigation is taken into consideration, Belagavi district occupies the first position. In contrast Kodagu district occupies the last position. The main canal irrigation projects of the state are: Krishnarajasagar, Tungabhadra, Hemavati, Kabini, Harangi, Vanivilas Sagar (Marikanive), Upper Krishna, Almatti, Narayanapura, Malaprabha, Karanja, Bennetore, Hipparagi Barrage, Bhadra projects etc. Hydro-electric power : The credit for successful generation of hydro-electric power for the first time in India goes to Karnataka. Coal or petroleum are not available in our state. But there is a great opportunity for the generation of Wells 48.3 % Canal irrigation 31.7 % Tank irrigation 6.6 % Other sources 13.4 % Irrigation area in persentage Do you know this? The first large dam in Karnataka was constructed at Vanivilas Sagar near Hiriyuru in 1907. This was as Marikanive plan. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 119 hydel power. There are rivers which can provide sufficient power for the whole state. Rivers flowing towards the west are most suitable for power generation than the rivers flowing towards the east. The hydro-electric power station at Shivanasamudra was established in 1902 to supply power to the Kolar gold mines. This project was constructed across river Cauvery. At a short distance away from it the second hydro power station was established on Shimsha river in 1940. The Mahatma Gandhi hydroelectric power station was established in 1947 near Jog Falls on Sharavathi river to fulfil the increased demand for hydro electric power. Later, many more hydel projects were developed under the Five Year Plans. As a result of these developments, Karnataka ranks first in the generation of hydro-electric power in India. The main hydro-electric power projects of Karnataka : Shivanasamudra, Shimsha (on Cauvery river), Sharavathi, Linganamakki, Gerusoppa and Mahatma Gandhi hydro power station (on Sharavathi river), Supa, Nagajhari, Kadra and Kodasalli (on Kali river), Varahi and MariKanive (on Varahi river), Bhadra, Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha and Alamatti (on Krishna river). EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words 1. The Cauvery river takes its birth at _____________ of Kodagu district. Working Projects Proposed Projects @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 120 2. The famous Jog Falls is produced by the __________ river. 3. The Krishnarajasagar dam is in ______________ district. 4. The first hydro-electric power generating station in Karnataka is ____________. 5. The Almatti dam has been constructed across ______________ river. II. Discuss in groups and answer the following questions. 1. Name the important rivers of Karnataka. 2. Write a short note on river Krishna. 3. What are the tributaries of Cauvery river. 4. Name the different sources of irrigation in Karnataka. 5. Mention the main hydro-electric power stations of our state. III. Match the following : A B 1. Linganamakki dam a. Hydro-electric project 2. Gaganachukki, Bharachukki b. River 3. Vani Vilas Sagar c. Kali river 4. Nagajhari d. Cauvery river 5. Pennar e. Sharavathi f. Marikanive IV. Activities : 1. Make a list of the rivers in Karnataka and their tributaries. 2. Make a list of the important hydro-electric power stations of Karnataka. V. Project : 1. Mark the dams of Karnataka on a map and name them. 2. Visit any tank, canal, stream or river, coast which are near your dwelling and write about their important features. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 121 CHAPTER – 13 LAND RESOURCES OF KARNATAKA We learn about the following in this chapter, • Pattern of land use in Karnataka. • Importance and types of farming. • Understand the distribution of the important crops of Karnataka and their production. Karnataka is geographically well placed. It has varied physical features, soil, vegetation, minerals, water and ground water resources. Land is the most important natural resources. Its proper use enables the state’s development. Land Utilisation Land use for various purposes is called ‘land utilisation’. It includes cultivable land, forest area, fallow land, land for residential purposes, for the construction of roadways, railways, dams, canals, barren land, land used for grazing purposes etc. Proper utilization of land is the foundation for economic development. Pattern of land utilization in Karnataka 1. Net area sown : The distribution of net area sown is not the same all over the state. Gulbarga district has the largest area under cultivable land in the state. It is followed by Belagavi, Vijayapura, Tumakuru, Raichur, Bagalkot, Ballari, Chitradurga and Mysuru districts. Bengaluru district has the least net area sown, due to wide-spread urbanization. Uttara Kannada, Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Kodagu have less cultivable land. Net area sown(58.1%) Forest area (14.5%) Land not available for cultivation (10.2%) other uncultivated land (7.2%) Fallow land (9.5%) Percentage of different kinds of land use @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 122 2. Forest area : Uttara Kannada district has large forest area. Shivamogga, Chamarajanagar, Chikkamagaluru, Kodagu, Belagavi, Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Ballari districts also have sufficiently large forest areas. However, Vijayapura has the least forested area. Even Bengaluru, Bengaluru Rural, Raichur, Bidar and Gadag districts have less forest area. 3. Land not available for cultivation : This land is not used for cultivation but for other purposes like rail routes, roads, residences, industry and irrigation projects. In recent times, use of land for such developmental purposes is increasing. Bengaluru Urban district in first place is given for such purposes. It is followed by Shivamogga, Tumakuru, Belagavi, Ballari, Mysuru and Dhakshina Kannada districts. It is the least in Bidar district. It is moderate in the other districts. 4. Other uncultivated land : This land use consists of permanent grazing land, trees and grooves. It is found largely in Shivamogga, Tumakuru, Kolar, Chikkamagaluru and Chitradurga districts. It is least in Gadag, Bagalkot and Dharwad district. Such land can be reclaimed and used for agriculture. 5. Fallow land : Land which has not been cultivated for more than two or three years is called fallow land. Kalaburagi district has the largest area as fallow land. It is followed by Raichur, Belagavi, Vijayapura, Koppal and Tumakuru districts. There is very little fallow land in Chikkamagaluru, Kodagu, Mysuru, Uttar Kannada and Udupi districts. However, such land areas have increased in these districts. Such land also can be reclaimed and utilised for agriculture. AGRICULTURE The cultivation of the land for raising crops is called agriculture. Animal husbandry, poultry, bee-keeping, and sericulture are included under agriculture. Nearly 61.4% of the people in Karnataka are in rural areas and they depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Importance : Agriculture is one of the ancient, primary occupations of Karnataka. It is the main source of livelihood for many. It is the backbone of our state’s economy. Economic progress depends on agriculture. Agriculture provides employment to people. It also provides food for the people and raw materials to industries. It is a source of @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 123 revenue to the state and to earn foreign exchange. Coffee, silk, spices, tobacco, cotton etc are the agricultural products which are exported. Agriculture helps in the development of tertiary occupations like transport, banking, insurance etc. It plays an important role in the political and social systems of the state. Types of cultivation : Different kinds of crops are grown according to the size of the land holding, land fertility, availability of water, amount of rainfall, climate, physical features, market facilities etc., The types of cultivation are classified according to these factors. They are subsistence farming, irrigation farming, dry farming, mixed farming, shifting cultivation, commercial farming, plantation farming etc. Crops grown by using water from canals, tanks or wells is called ‘irrigation’. Paddy and sugarcane are the main crops grown under this farming. Cultivation of crops which depend on rain is called dry farming, for example : ragi, jowar, oil seeds etc. The cultivation of a few annual crops on large estates for the purpose of earning money is called plantation farming, for example; coffee, tea, rubber, cocoa etc. Crops that are grown not for the domestic market but also for the international market come under commercial farming, for example: tobacco, cotton, jute etc. The crops which are grown by the farmers for home consumption and not for the market is called subsistence farming. This is an ancient type of cultivation. Nowadays, a mixed type of farming is gaining popularity. In addition to growing crops, dairy farming, silkworm rearing, sheep rearing, poultry, bee-keeping, fishery etc. are taken up and it is called mixed farming. The major crops of Karnataka Just like different types of farming, there are different types of crops in Karnataka. The main responsible for this are: soil, climatic conditions, relief features, irrigation facility, traditions of the farmers and market for the agricultural produce etc. The crops of Karnataka can be classified as follows : Food crops – paddy, ragi, Speciality of Crops Nanjanagud- Rasabale Byadagi - Chillies Tiptur - Coconut Mysuru - Betel Bengaluru - Blue grapes Devanahalli - Pomelo Eranagere - Brinjal Nippani - Tobacco @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 124 maize, pulses, millets, Commercial crops – sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, mulberry. Oilseeds-groundnut, ningerseed, sesame, sunflower etc. Plantation crops – coffee, coconut, arecanut, rubber, banana etc. In addition to these different types of horticultural crops and floriculture are there. Now let us study about the major crops of Karnataka. FOOD CROPS 1. Paddy : Paddy is a very important food crop of Karnataka.Rice is the staple food of the people of Karnataka. Paddy is grown in 28.2% of the total cultivable land. Irrigation facility, use of chemical fertilizers and high-yielding hybrid seeds have resulted improvement in the yield of paddy. Paddy is a tropical crop. Cultivation of paddy requires heavy rainfall and high temperature. Areas having scanty rainfall need irrigation facility for the growing of paddy. Cultivation of paddy requires level land. Fertile clayey and alluvial soils are ideal for paddy cultivation. Organic manure, leaves of trees and abundant labourers are required for the cultivation of paddy. Nearly 70% of paddy is sown during June - August months, and harvested during November-December. It is a kharif crop. Even in summer, paddy is grown in areas where irrigation facility is available (February - June). This is called rabi crop. In Malnad, paddy is grown by broad- casting method and in the plains by transplanting method. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 125 Paddy Growing areas : Paddy is grown in all the districts of Karnataka. The Krishna – Tungabhadra valley, Cauvery valley and the coastal districts are famous for paddy cultivation. Raichur district stands first in the production of paddy. Next come Ballari, Shivamogga, Davangere, Mysuru, Mandya, Koppal, Uttara Kannada, Udupi, Dakshina Kannada and Kalaburagi. The other paddy growing areas of Karnataka are Tumakuru, Hassan, Chikkamagaluru, Kodagu and Belagavi. The yield and quality of paddy is better in irrigated areas. 2. Jowar : This is second most important crop in Karnataka after paddy. Untill recently, the area under jowar cultivation was more than that of paddy. But in recents years it has decreased. The total area under jowar cultivation is 26 % of the cultivable area. Karnataka ranks second after Maharashtra in the production of jowar in India. Jowar is the staple food of the people of North Karnataka. It is mainly used for preparing rotis. The stalks of jowar plant are used as cattle folder. In South Karnataka jowar is primarily grown for cattlefeed. This crop also belongs to the grass family. It is a tropical crop, requiring moderate rainfall and moderate temperature. Mixed black and red soil and alluvial soil are suitable for jowar. It is a rain-fed crop and grown by using broadcasting method. It depends on the South-West Monsoons. Growing areas : Except for a few districts of South Karnataka, all other districts grow jowar. Vijayapura, Kalaburagi, Bagalkot, Raichur, Belagavi, Bidar, Ballari, Davangere, Koppal and Gadag are the leading producers of jowar. Vijayapura stands first in the production of jowar in the state. Chitradurga, Shivamogga, Kalaburagi Vijayapura Belagavi Shivamogga Chikkamagaluru TumakuruBengaluru(R) Bengaluru(U) Mysuru @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 126 Chamarajnagar, Hassan, Tumakuru and Mandya districts are also produce jowar. 3) Ragi : This is a very nutritive food grain. Ragi balls, porridge, sprouted flour, malt, dosa etc. are made from ragi. In Karnataka it is the third most important food grain after paddy and jowar. It is cheap grain. The stalks of the ragi plant are used as fodder for cattle. Ragi can be preserved for many months. Ragi is a tropical crop. High temperature, moderate rainfall, red sandy and loamy soil are suitable for this crop. It can withstand very severe droughts. In some places, ragi is grow by using irrigation facility. Many labourers are needed to transplant ragi sapplings, Pull out the weeds to harvest and store ragi. It is an important Kharif crop. It can be grown even during summer season by using irrigation. Growing areas : Karnataka stands first in the production of ragi in India. However, the use of ragi has reduced. Ragi is grown in 14% of the total cultivable land. The ragi-growing areas are concentrated in the districts of southern maidan. Ragi is a traditional crop of Old Mysore province. Jowar is the main crop in North Karnataka, where as ragi is the main crop in South Karnataka. Tumakuru is the leading producer of ragi. Then come Ramnagar, Bengaluru Rural, Hassan, Mandya, Kolar, Chikballapur, Shivamogga, Chikkamagaluru, Chamarajnagar and Davanagere districts. COMMERCIAL CROPS 1) Sugarcane : Sugarcane is the most important commercial and industrial crop of Karnataka. Karnataka ranks fourth in the production of sugarcane. Sugarcane is a tropical crop. It is grown in Kalaburagi Vijayapura Belagavi Shivamogga Chikkamagaluru TumakuruBengaluru(R) Bengaluru(U) Mysuru Do you know this : Kalaburagi is the granary of Togari (Toor). @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 127 areas with high temperature and heavy rainfall or good irrigation facility. Sandy loamy soil and red soil are suitable for the cultivation of sugarcane. Since sugarcane has to be transported to the factories as soon as it is harvested, there has to be good transport facility. Sugarcane belongs to the grass family. It grows to a height of three metres. It contains sucrose and it is used to produce jaggery and sugar. Being an annual crop sugarcane requires irrigation facility. Growing areas : Belagavi is the leading producer of sugarcane in Karnataka and followed by Bagalkot which has irrigation facility from the Almatti project. Mandya, Mysuru, Shivamogga, Davanagere, Hassan, Koppal, Vijayapura, Bidar, Ballari and Haveri are the other important sugarcane-growing areas. Mandya district has specialised in the cultivation of sugarcane even from pre-independence days. 2) Cotton : Cotton is a fibre crop. It provides raw material for cotton textiles. Besides, it is used for making carpets, beds and pillows. Cooking oil is produced from cotton seeds. Cotton seed cake is used as cattle feed. Cotton is a crop of the tropics and the sub-tropics. Moderate rainfall, high temperature and black soil are suitable for its growth. Cotton has been used for a long time in daily life in Karnataka. Long, medium and short staple cotton are the different varieties of cotton. Karnataka grows more of medium and short staple cotton. Cotton is a kharif crop. It is sown in August-September. It is a rain-fed crop. It can also grown with the help of irrigation facility. Growing areas : The main cotton-producing districts of Karnataka are Haveri, Dharwad, Gadag, Mysuru, Ballari, Raichur, Kalaburagi, Belagavi, Davanagere, Chitradurga, Koppal and Vijayapura. Among these, Haveri district ranks first in the production of cotton in the state. Dharwad district ranks second. Nowadays, areas growing cotton are dwindling. Pests and disease- have become major problems. As a result the development of disease- tolerant and high -yield varieties of cotton by the Agricultural Activity List out the food crops and commercial crops grown in your district. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 128 Research Institute. There is improvement in the yield production of cotton. 3) Tobacco : It belongs to the nicotiana group. It contains an intoxicating substance called nicotine. Tobacco is used in the manufacture of beedis, cigarettes, cigar and snuff. The Portuguese introduced tobacco in the 17th century in India. Subsequently, people started growing it in Karnataka. Presently, it is a major commercial crop in the state. It can be grown in areas with moderate rainfall and high temperature in loamy soil. Karnataka grows virginia tobacco, beedi tobacco and chewing tobacco. Virginia tobacco is highest quality and is great demand in the global market. It is grown widely in Karnataka. It earns valuable foreign exchange and revenue for the state exchequer. Growing areas : Karnataka ranks fourth among the tobacco-growing states in India. Mysore district occupies the first position in the production of tobacco. It is also grown in the districts of Hassan, Shivamogga, Kodagu, Belagavi, Ballari, Chitradurga, Raichur, Davanagere, Tumakuru and Gadag. Nippani in Belagavi district is very famous for its beedi tobacco marketing. Tobacco grown in Karnataka is of a world-class, and most of it is exported. 4) Coffee : Coffee is Karnataka’s famous plantation and beverage crop. Karnataka ranks first in the production of coffee in India. A Muslim Fakir (priest) named Bababudan planted coffee saplings for the first time around 1670 A.D. in the hills of Chikkamagaluru. However, organized cultivation of coffee began under the British rule in 1826, and today vast coffee estates can be seen in Karnataka. Karnataka produces two types of coffee namely Coffee Arabica and coffee Robusta. Of these Arabica is of better quality and enjoys a great demand in the international market. Coffee is a tropical crop which can grow well on the slopes of hills, with heavy rainfall. Clay mixed soil is suitable for this crop. Coffee plant cannot withstand the direct rays of the sun. Hence shady trees are grown in estates. Coffee is mainly grown in the Malnad region which has all the conditions required for growing it. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 129 Coffee growing areas : Karnataka has a share of 70% of the coffee produced in India. It is grown largely in Kodagu district. After Kodagu, Chikkamagaluru and Hassan are important for coffee growing. It is grown to a small extent in Shivamogga, Chamarajnagar and Dakshina Kannada district. Coffee grown in Karnataka is good in quality. Hence it enjoys great demand both in the national and international markets. That is why Karnataka is known as ‘The Land of Coffee’. EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. 1. Utilising land for different purposes is called ____________. 2. __________ district has the largest net area sown. 3. The ____________ district is the largest producer of sugarcane in Karnataka. 4. Tobacco contains an intoxicating substance called ___________. II. Discuss in groups and answer the following questions. 1. Name the different types of land utilization in Karnataka. 2. Write a note on the importance of agriculture in Karnataka. 3. What is meant by ‘irrigation’? Name the main crops grown under irrigation. 4. Explain the main characteristics of ‘mixed farming’? 5. Mention the uses of ragi. Activity : Collect more information regarding organic farming. Activity Invite the farmers to your school. Conduct a discussion on methods of cultivation and marketing of the crops which they have grown. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 130 III. Match the following. A B 1. Coffee a. Mixed farming 2. Cotton b. Beverage crop 3. Sugarcane c. Tobacco 4. Nippani d. Fibres crop 5. Sheep-rearing e. Plantation crop f. Commercial crop IV. Activities : 1. Collect samples of the various kinds of foodgrains and pulses grown in Karnataka. 2. On a map of Karnataka mark the areas where jowar, ragi and other foodgrains are grown . V. Project : 1. Note down the names of the crops grown in the surrounding areas of your place. Collect of the same pictures. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 131 ECONOMICS CHAPTER - 14 ECONOMIC STRUCTURE We learn about the following in this chapter, • Features of ancient and traditional economic systems and the nature of their transformation • Sources of income and employment • Features of static and dynamic economy • India’s progress towards self-reliant economy Structural Transformation We have learnt about economic activities last year. Economic activities are classified into agricultural, industrial and service sector activities. The nature of production and employment in these three sectors of the economic system, the level of income, use of technology and the changes that take place in lifestyles are called the economic structure. Generally, the economic structure of any economy is subjected to continual change. The factors of production namely land, labour, capital and organization improve their efficiency and productivity. The nature of work and the amount of production keep changing with the use of new and appropriate technology in the factors of production. Indian economy is by tradition an agrarian economy. Majority of the population are engaged in cultivation. It was subsistence farming. The farmers grew just what was necessary and required for them. The wants of the people were few and their life was simple. Barter system was in practice. When farming became commercialized, the ancient economic systems started getting transformed. Instead of growing only what was required for their needs, the farmers began to grow those crops that could be sold in the market for money. Along with the traditional crops of ragi, paddy, jowar and wheat, they began to grow the commercial crops like coconut, cotton, sugarcane, jute, groundnuts and spices which were more profitable. Agro industries also flourished as cotton, sugar and other commercial crops were @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 132 grown extensively. The Industrial Revolution that started in Britain during the 17th and 18th Centuries gradually spread to other countries. This revolution led to the rise of a new class in society called as the capitalist class. The feudal lords who owned lands, came forward to invest their money in industries, and thus came to be known as investors. Making use of new discoveries, and excited by the huge profits, they established different kinds of industries. Over a period of time, the new technology came to be used in all fields including agriculture. As a result, production, employment opportunities and income increased, leading to an improvement in the standard of living of the people. In this manner, agrarian economy gave way to industral economy. In the process, some economies progressed much faster than the others. Thus, different economies are in different stages of development today. Efforts were made to adopt modern agricultural techniques in Indian agriculture too. As a consequence, the use of high-yielding seeds, mechanical farming, chemical fertilizers and insecticides increased. In addition to this, many innovations were made in methods of farming and production, which boosted the change in Indian agriculture. Hybridization, adoption of technology in irrigation facilities etc. led to noticeable increase in production. However, the indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides etc. led to environmental pollution. Land erosion caused loss of fertile land. Unlimited use of water without paying attention to renewal of ground water table reduced the ground water level. Due to haphazard use of pesticides, sources of water in many places became contaminated. As a result of all these changes, organic farming and natural farming have once again gained importance. The changes in economic structure brought a significant change in the Indian economy. Compared to eve of political independence, relatively fewer people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. But still majority of the workforce are engaged in cultivation. However, its contribution to the national income is steadily decreasing. At present, it is the service sector which Activity: know about Population in the past and present and change in agriculture field of our villages. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 133 is contributing the maximum to the national income. It is also providing the greatest number of employment opportunities after agriculture. The industrial sector is growing steadily and its contribution to the national income is second only to the service sector. Sources of Income In a simple economy, the income comes from two sources. They are: 1) the household sector and 2) the firms sector. These generate income through mutual exchange. Look at the following diagram to understand the flow of income in a simple economies and mutual dependence between household and firm sector. The household sectors own the factors of production namely land, labour, capital and organization, and supply them to the firms. In return, the firms provide rent for using land, wages for utilizing labour, interest for utilizing capital and profit for organization. Hence, Rent, wages, interest and profit comprise the income of household. The firms utilize the factors of production and produce goods and services which are sold to the household sectors. The money that the household sectors pay for these goods and services comprises the income of the firms sectors. Modern nations are welfare states. Hence, in order to earn income to undertake welfare programmes, the governments levy taxes on households and firm sectors. In return, it provides security and services like education, health, housing, electricity, transport and @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 134 drinking water facilities etc. to the household. In the same manner, the government also provides services like transport and communication facilities, security and electricity etc. to the firms. Government also gives the transfer payments to households and subsidies to firms. Let’s look at the following diagram. Sources of Employment : In order to make a living, people work in the different sectors of the economy like agriculture, industry and service sector. Gradually, the agriculture-based nations are turning into industrial and serviceoriented nations. As the Indian economy progress, many changes took place even in the agricultural sector with the adoption of modern technology. The use of technology and skilled farming practices led to the creation of a surplus labour force in the agriculture sector which brought increased disguised unemployment. By the time, the industrial and service sectors had also begun expanding in India. The work force from the agricultural sector began to shift to industrial and service sectors. However, most of the jobs in those sectors required skilled manpower. This became the major obstacle for the unskilled labour force desiring to shift from agricultural sector. These unskilled agricultural laborers were unable to get jobs in the industrial and service sectors. Though some of them managed to get jobs after equipping themselves with the required skills through training, majority of them continued to work in the agricultural sector itself. Some agricultural households have managed to secure excellent yields through their farming skills, and @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 135 have proved to be role-models for others and there by contributing to the country’s development. Although in India the contribution of the agricultural sector to the Gross Domestic Product is reducing, the proportion of workers depending on farming is huge. The government has undertaken many programs to equip the unskilled farm workers with the necessary skills. Static and Dynamic Economy The word ‘static’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘statike’. ‘Statike’ means ‘stand still.’ In economics, it refers to a situation which witnesses absolutely no changes. Static economy is a timeless economy where there are no changes at all. The fundamental factors of the economy like the size of population, availability of capital, methods of production, nature of organization and people’s wants remain static without any alteration. Hence, economic development remains stunted. During British rule, the Indian economy was a static economy. Due to the long-drawn economic exploitation of the British, India had been reduced to a poor nation. Lack of nutritious food and dearth of health facilities had led to increased death rate. As a result of poverty, there was an enormous scarcity of capital. Outdated production processes continued in agriculture and industry. Thus, the pre-independence Indian economy was static. The word ‘dynamic’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘dynamikos’. It refers to drastic changes or continuous change. Dynamic economics is the study of the variations that take place in an economy. It analyses the process of change that takes place from time to time in an economy. In a dynamic economy, the size of population, availability of capital, methods of production, nature of organization and people’s wants keep on changing continuously. The economic development varies from year to year. As a result, the economy gets transformed into a modern economy. With the use of modern technology, the methods of production and the volume of production go on shifting. Thus, due to all these developments, people’s lifestyles also keep changing. After independence, the Indian economy has got transformed into a dynamic economy. With the expansion of medical facilities, death rate has decreased and life expectancy at birth has increased. Through the implementation of five-year plans, capital investment has risen. Adoption of modern technology has led to speedy variations in the methods of production in the agricultural and industrial sectors. Due @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 136 to this, production has improved. Standard of living of the people has changed, along with their needs. The new economic policy introduced in 1991 brought in liberalization, privatization and globalization which, in their turn, accelerated the speed of change. Consequently, the economic structure is getting reorganized. The new economic reforms has a negative impact on agricultural sector whereas there is a positive impact on service sector, where as Industrial sector is also growing slowly. The government has taken efforts to provide a ‘Safety Net’ to those who have been affected negatively by the new economic policy. It is working towards an inclusive growth in the nation. EXCERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. 1) Positive change relates to _______ activities. 2) In the ancient economies, ________ was the main one. 3) There are _______ sectors in a simple economy. 4) ‘Static economics’ has been derived from the word ________. 5) Industrial Revolution first took place in ________. II. Answer the following after discussing them in groups: 1) What is ‘Positive change’? 2) Mention the feature of ancient economics systems. 3) How did the capitalist class emerge? 4) What are the sources of Income ? 5) What are the source of Employment ? 6) Explain the difference between static and dynamic economics. III. Activity : 1) Consult your parents and list the names of crops that were grown by the farmers of your village/town 20 years ago. Compare them with the crops being grown now. Identify the changes that have taken place in the crops in your village/ town in this 20-years period. Write a short essay on this development. IV. Project : 1) Draw a diagram showing the sources of income of the government and explain it. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 137 CHAPTER - 15 SECTORS OF INDIAN ECONOMY We learn about the following in this chapter, • Major sectors of the Indian economy. • Meaning and importance of primary sector. • Importance of secondary sector and classification. • Role of public sector and private sector. • Importance of tertiary sector. • Karnataka’s economy. As you have already known that based on economic activities, the Indian economy has been classified into three sectors, namely 1) Primary sector - consisting of agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, logging and fishing. 2) Secondary sector - consisting of manufacturing, mining, quarrying, gas and water supply, construction, electricity. 3) Tertiary sector - consisting of education, transport, storage communication, tourism, hotel and restaurant, insurance, real estate, business services, public administration and other services. Primary Sector The primary sector includes agriculture and its allied activities like Sericulture, Horticulture, Animal husbandry, Poultry, Fishery, Floriculture etc. which provide raw materials to agro-based industries. Importance of Agricultural Sector : Agriculture is a major occupation in India. Still it is the backbone of our economy. Its importance can be briefed as follows, 1. More than 52% of people are still depending on agriculture, directly and indirectly for their livelihood. 2. It provides raw materials for agro-based industries. 3. It provides food for human beings and fodder for animals @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 138 4. It helps in the capital formation through the savings of the farmers. Though agriculture is the main occupation, the condition of farmers is not yet satisfactory due to the following reasons. 1) Majority of farmers are small and marginal. 2) Large portion of cropped area is rain fed. 3) Productivity in agriculture is very low. 4) Majority of farmers are ignorant about the modern tools and new techniques of production. 5) Farmers do not get the correct price for their products due to the existence of middlemen. Government has undertaken various measures to improve the productivity of agriculture and also to improve the conditions of farmers in the country. Secondary Sector Secondary sector is also called Manufacturing sector where raw materials are converted into finished products. The industries can be classified into three groups namely , a) Agro-based Industries b) Forest-based Industries c) Mineral-based Industries. Industries are classified into two groups on the basis of ownership namely (1) public sector industries and (2) private sector industries. Agriculture Activity : 1. Meet a famer of your village and collect the following information a) What are the crops grown by them in this year? b) After the crops produced how is the selling system? Activity : Know the recent d e v e l o p m e n t s i n agriculture. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 139 Public sector industries are under the ownership of Government. These are classified as Central Public Sector Enterprises (CPSE) and State Public Sector Enterprises (SPSE). Private Sector industries are under the ownership of Private People. They include multinational companies and other Private industries on the basis of capital investment and machineries. They are classified as large scale, medium scale, small scale and micro type industries (MSME’s) Public Sector in India : During the pre-independence period the participation of the public sector in economic activity was virtually absent. The only organizations which were under the management and the government control were Railways, Port Trust, Post and telegraphs, Air craft and defence factories. However, since the inception of Industrial Policy 1956, there has been a huge expansion of the public sector industries in independent India. Public sector units (PSUs) at present constitute a major national capability in terms of their scale of operation, coverage, technical expertise and employment generation. The important PSUs in India are HMT, BHEL, ITI, Hindustan Ship Building Yard, etc.., Private sector : The private sector refers to all types of individual and corporate enterprises in the field of economic activity. In this sector different factors of production in various productive activities are owned and managed privately by individual of private corporate bodies. For example Tata, Birla, Zindal, Mahindra, Ambani, Kirloskar, etc.. Multinational companies (MNC’s) : An enterprise which is managed from home country and has operational branches in different countries is called Multinational company. Generally any company or group that gets more than quarter of revenue from its operations from outside the home country is also called MNC’s. After economic reforms many MNC’s have started their enterprises in India. Eg : Sony (Japan), Samsong (south korea), Hindustan Liver (England) etc. Industries @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 140 Post 1991 Economic reforms, by Indian Government has brought Public Private Partnership(PPP) in various infrastructure projects. Privatization has got major boost after the 1991 Economic reforms. Importance of industrial Sector : Industrial sector strengthens the economy as : 1) It brings higher income to the nation. 2) It provides employment to the people. 3) Standard of living of the people will be increased. 4) It helps to modernise the agriculture as it provides tractors, machineries, fertilisers etc. 5) Reduces the pressure of population on agriculture. Many hill migrate to cities & towns. 6) It helps to earn more foreign exchange. 7) Industrial regions also develop as centers of trade, education, transport, Banking etc. Tertiary Sector Tertiary sector is also called service sector. At present the world economy is dominated by service sector. Banking, Insurance, Trade, Transport and communication, Health, Education and training etc. are important components of service sector. Banks : Banks are the financial institutions, which accept different types of deposits from the general public. Then they advance loans to those who are in need of finance. Banks act as the mediators between savers and investors. Insurance : Insurance is a way of protection against the financial losses. It guards against the unforeseen events, which cause damages and destruction to human life and properties. For example death, incapacitation due to accident, old age sickness, theft, fire, flood, earthquake, riot, lightning, burning, sea piracy, sinking of ship, vessels colliding etc. There are two types of insurance, namely General insurance and Life insurance. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 141 Transport : Transport is a system which carries passengers and goods from one place to another. Land transport, water transport and air transport are the different modes of transport, which play an important role in economic development. they bring a wide market for the goods and services. Communication : Communication refers to the sharing of ideas, thoughts, messages from person to person and from one place to another place. Postal services, telecommunications, fax, email, newspapers, Internet all help to communicate the people from one to another place of the world. Health : ‘Health is wealth’ and ‘a sound mind in a sound body’ - statements convey the importance of heath in one’s life. According to World Health Organization- Health refers to “the person, who is free from physical, mental, social and intellectual disorders”. Health care in India is gradually improving. There is a steep decline in Death rate to 7.2 per thousand. Infant mortality rate to 47 per thousand live births, and child mortality is 15 per thousand. There is a rise in average expectancy of life to 66.9 years in 2011. Medical awareness programs have helped to control deadly diseases like Tuberculosis (TB), Cholera and Malaria. Polio has been completely eradicated from India due to the determined will of the Government. Education : Education is derived from a Latin word ‘educare’ which means ‘lead to light’. According to Gandhiji ‘Education brings all round development in personality of the child’. The Government in order to increase the literacy, has brought Rastreeya Saksharatha Mission in 1988, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan in Transport @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 142 2001, Mid day meal scheme in 1995, Raashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyaan (RMSA) in March 2009 to improve the quality of education in our country. Contribution of different sectors to National Income The following table shows the contribution of different sectors to our national income Sectors 1950-51(%) 1990-91(%) 2000-01(%) 2011-12(%) Primary sector 59 35 27 14 Secondary sector 13 24 25 27 Tertiary sector 28 41 48 59 KARNATAKA ECONOMY Karnataka, is the 8th biggest state of India, extends over an area of 191,791 Sq Kms. For administration perpose it is divided into 4 divisions, 30 districts, 176 taluks.It is endowed with rich natural resources like evergreen forests of western ghats, coastal region, rich flora and fauna and ore deposits. These resources are contributing to the economic development in many ways. you can learn more information about our resources in Geography. Agriculture : More than 52% of the workforce is still dependent on Agriculture in Karnataka. Agriculture in the state is characterised by wide crop diversification. Karnataka has attained self sufficiency in food grains, but where as in case of the production of pulses there is deficit. About 30% of the cultivable area is under irrigation and 70% is dependent on rainfall. Irrigation potentials are created through major and minor irrigation projects. For example Ghataprabha, Malabrabha, Narayanapura, Alamatti dam, Tungabhadra, Hemavathi, Harangi, Krishnaraja sagar etc. Paddy, jowar, ragi, wheat, bajra are important food crops grown in Karnataka. Cotton, sugarcane, tobacco,potato, oil seeds, coffee, tea are major commercial crops of the state. cardamom, pepper, coconut, areca nut and banana are the major species and plantation crops of the state. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 143 Horticulture : Karnataka is one of the leading states in horticulture. In order to improve the cultivation of horticulture, the state government has under taken many initiatives like area expansion, assistance to farmers, supply of seeds and seedlings, micro irrigation, control of pests and diseases, post harvest management and marketing etc. ‘Karnataka state Horticulture Development Agency’ has been established to develop horticulture farms and nurseries with more scientific approach. NABARD is providing credit facilities through its agencies for the expansion of horticultural crops. Floriculture in Karnataka : Floriculture is also called flower farming. It is the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for botanical gardens and floristry (floral industry). Karnataka is the leader in floriculture. Devanahalli and Chikkaballapur are leading flower growing taluks in the state. India’s exports in floriculture is increasing and the major portion of flowers exported from India are from Karnataka. Karnataka Agro Industries Corporation(KAIC), National Horticulture Board help to establish a flowry business with cold storage facilities and freight subsidies for entrepreneurs in Karnataka. A n im a l H u s b a n d r y a n d d a i r y development : Karnataka ranks second place in India in milk production. The state’s share in live stock and poultry of India is 6.2% and 6.48% respectively. The milk production in the state has increased from 4.5 million tons in 2008- 09 to 4.8 million tons in 2009-10. The health of livestock and poultry in the state are catered through a network of veterinary centers established through out Karnataka. Mango tree Floriculture Animal Husbandry @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 144 Karnataka Milk Federation (KMF) is a state level Co-operative organization which is implementing dairy development in the state under ‘operation flood’. It markets milk and dairy products to the consumers. Fisheries : Karnataka has rich resource of fish culture with a continental shelf of 27000 sq km with 320 km of coastline and 5.60 lakh hectares of inland waters. It gives huge scope for development of fisheries. The total fishermen of the state is 9.61 lakh comprising 3.28 lakh marine and 6.33 lakh inland fisher men. The average fish production in the last 5 years is about 587 lakh tons. The state contribution to India’s total fish production is 6%. There are seven fishing harbors in the state located at Karwar, Tadri Honnavar, Bhatkal, Gangolli, Malpe and Mangaluru. Export of marine products is earning good foreign exchange for Indian economy. Industry: Karnataka is a centre for some of the Largest Public sector industries of India. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is dedicated to research and development activities for indigenous fighter aircraft for the Indian Air Force. It is the Largest Public sector Industry in Karnataka which has more than 9500 employees. National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL), Indian Telephone Industries (ITI), Bharat Earth Movers Limited (BEML), Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), Hindustan Machine Tools (HMT) are other heavy industries established in Karnataka under public sector. TVS motor cycle manufacturing Plant at Mysuru, Tata motors at Dharwad, Electrical equipments manufacturing companies like Kirloskar, ABB, Kavika, Larsen and Turbo (L&T) are some of the important private Sector Industries established in Karnataka. Infosys and Wipro are the leading IT (Information technology) Companies from Karnataka. Karnataka is the leading state in bio-technology industry. It has built up considerable resources and talent. It is one of the first state to frame an industry oriented biotechnology policy. Banking : Bharatha Rathna Sir M Vishweswaraiah established State Bank of Mysuru in 1913. Since then Karnataka has a premier position in banking. Dakshina Kannada and Udupi are called as the Cradles of banking industry. Canara Bank, Syndicate Bank, Corporation Bank, Vijaya Bank which are leading public sector banks, they had their roots from these two districts. Canara bank is the first bank to sponsor the Regional Rural Bank (RRB) in the state. Now 27 public sector @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 145 commercial banks, 16 private commercial banks and 6 regional rural banks are operating in the state. IDBI, Axis bank, ICICI bank, Indus bank etc. are the leading private banks operating in the state. Tourism : Karnataka with its great heritage and cultural background has vast potential for the sustainable development of tourism industry. Since 1988 tourism has been given priority. Tourism is instrumental for socio economic growth of the state as well as providing lot of employment opportunity for both skilled and unskilled workers. It also helps the growth of transport, trade, Health, Horticulture, floriculture and MSME’s . Power: Karnataka generates power in four different forms, namely Hydro power, Thermal power, Wind power and Solar power. Hydro power is the major source of electricity generation in the state. Electricity generation plants are owned and controlled by Karnataka power corporation limited (KPCL). Karnataka Power Transmission corporation limited (KPTCL) is responsible to distribute the power throughout the state. State Bank of Mysore Solar power Hydro Electric power Wind power @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 146 Transport Transport : Transport is the lifelines of the state economy. Agriculture, industry, mining, trade and other activities depend on transport system. without systematic transportation no economic development is possible. Therefore transport is the key for economic development. Road transport, railways, water transport and airways are helpful for economic development. Road Transport : Karnataka is having a wide range network of road. Roads connect every nook and corner of the state. They act as basic infrastusture for both rural and urban areas. Important roads and bridges are being develpoed with co ordination of private capitalist. under ‘Pradhan manthri Sadak Yojane’ main roads to every village are linked. Karnataka State Road Transport corporation (KSRTC) is a Government owned enterprise is known for its efficient public transport. For efficient functioning and operational feasibility, the state government has bifurcated this corporation into four corporations namely 1) Karnataka State Road Transportation (KSRTC), 2) Bengaluru Mahanagar Road Transportation (BMTC), 3) North West Karnataka State Road Transportation (NWKRTC), 4) North East Karnataka State Road Transportation (NEKRTC). Railways : Railway transportation is contributing Largely for the socio-economic development and integration of the state. Most of the capital cities of the nation is facilitated by railway transport from Bengaluru. Railway Stations are upgraded, electronic signaling system is installed for smoth transport of railway .The central office of south western railway zone is at Hubballi. All most Railway routes of the state come under this administration. This transportation carries not only passangres, but also goods. Water Transport : Karnataka State has a coastal line of 320Kms, consisting of one major Port and 12 small ports. The big New Mangalore major port is owned by central government, remaining ports are under the ownerahip of state Government. Among these karwar, Belikeri, Malpe and Mangalore ports carry considerable quantity of goods. State Water transport have facilitated link to many states and many countries of the world. Air Transport : Air transportation is the fastest transport. It can carry men and materials from one place to another very quickly. It is very useful to internal and international trade of the state. The @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 147 country’s first green field international airport has been developed at Devanahalli near Bengaluru. It facilitates considerable contribution to the development of agriculture, industries, Bio-technology, information technology and other fields of the state. Airports are there in the other cities also like Mangaluru, Hubballi and Mysuru. Government is trying to develop these Airports under private participation. Tele-Communication : The telecommunication system in the state is operated by both public and private sectors. Along with Bharath Sanchar Nigam Ltd (BSNL), Other major private operators in Karnataka are Vodafone, Bharathi Airtel, Spice, Reliance etc. Health and Education : Karnataka has made a significant progress in imparting the health status of its people. Over the period it has made substantial progress in building better health services both in urban and rural areas. The primary health infrastructure in the rural areas has fulfilled the need of the people through “Minimum needs program”. There are 2310 primary health centers, 8870 sub-centers and 180 community health centers in Karnataka. The department of Health and Family welfare service implements various national and state health programs of public importance. It also provides systematic health care services to the people of the state through various types of health and medical institutions. Eg: Janani Suraksha Yojana, Thayi Bhagya, Madilu etc. Education : The economic growth of Karnataka is largely based on the knowledge base of the society. The state has embarked on significant reforms in the education sector with increased public investment to ensure quality education. There are primary schools, High schools, pre-university colleges and Universities in Karnataka which are imparting quality education. Karnataka is one of the fastest growing states in India. It has attained 75.6% of literacy by 2011. Government of Karnataka has established ‘Karnataka knowledge commission’, not only to extend the higher education but also to meet the requirements of the growing industry and service sectors as well as to meet the global challenges. All above fields are providing their own contributions to the economic development of karnataka with mutual co-operation. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 148 EXERCISES I. Fill in the blanks with suitable words. 1) Main occupation of India is ________ . 2) Health and Education come under _______ sector. 3) The total Geographical land of Karnataka is _______. 4) SBM was established by __________in 1913. 5) Manufacturing activities belong to __________. 6) The coastline area of Karnataka is __________. 7) To expand higher education Karnataka government has established ________ commission. 8) New Economic Policy was introduced in _________. II. Answer the following questions with group dicussion. 1) Define primary sector. 2) State the different sectors of Indian economy 3) Explain the importance of Industrial sector. 4) Which places of India are called as cradle of Banking? 5) What is Education according to Gandhiji? 6) State the group of Industries. 7) List the important irrigation projects of Karnataka. 8) What is Health according to W.H.O. ? III. Activities : 1) “The Third sector is in top position in the world.” Give a real picture with supported information about this statement. 2) List the industries that are in your locality and classify. IV. Project : 1) Prepare a project on Karnataka Economy by explaining the different Economic activities. –—–—–— @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 149 BUSINESS STUDIES CHAPTER – 16 MANAGEMENT OF BUSINESS We learn about the following in this chapter, • Meaning of the management. • Principles of management. • Importance of decision making and its process. • Functional areas of management. Meaning of Management : Generally, the term management refers to the principles of managing the activities of an enterprise. It is also used to refer to a field of learning or a branch of knowledge. In the words of J.L. Haynes, “Management is an art of getting things done through other people”. It is the process of getting Pre-determined things done through others by directing their efforts in an integrated and co-ordinated objectives of business. Management is the sum total of the principle functions namely (a) Planning (b) Organising (c) Staffing (d) Directing (e) Co-ordinating and (f) Controlling. Principles of Management : For smooth and efficient management of a business concern, certain principles are necessary to be followed. The following principles are suggested by Henry Fayol. Division of Work : Work has to be divided among the employees. The division of work leads to specialization and efficiency. It minimizes the wastage and maxmises the production and profit. This principle can be adopted at all levels of the organisation. Authority and responsibility : This principle refers to the authority and responsibility, which are the combination of official authority and personal responsibility. Both are compounded with intelligence, experience, past experience, moral worth etc., Discipline : This principle refers to the managerial authority and constructive discipline among the officials and subordinates at all levels. It guarantees the fulfillment of objectives set by the management. The discipline required by the superiors should be clear and fair. It also includes the judicious application of penalties. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 150 Unity of command : This is the principle that an employee should receive orders from one superior only. Unity of Direction : This principle means that each group of activities, having the same objective must have one head and one plan. Sub-ordination of Individual interest to General interest : This principle tells that the management should minimize the individual differences and should not allow differences to block the fulfillment of general goals of the organisation. Remuneration of Personnel : The remuneration and methods of payment should be fair and afford to maximum satisfaction to the employees. Centralisation : This principle refers to the extent to which authority is concentrated, so that it gives the overall yields. Scalar chain : This principle means that every enterprise should have graded authority or superior-subordinate relationship. The range of authority and responsibility of superiors in relation to the subordinates at various levels should be clearly defined. Equity : It means that, there must be fair dealing, accommodation or co-operative attitude among the common employees and managers. Stability of security to personnel : The management must assure security of job to the personnel. Instability of job has both cause and effect of the bad management. The quick labour turnover will result in bad management. Initiative : The initiative is one of the keen satisfactions. The management should have the capacity to thinkout original plans and execute them with full discretion. Espirate De-Corps : It is based on the principle “Unity is strength”. It emphasizes the need for team work and importance of communication in obtaining it. DECISION MAKING – PROCESS Meaning : Decision making is the mental process, of selecting a course of action among several activities. Need for Decision making – Process:- Each business organisation has its own goals and objectives. In order to achieve these objectives and goals the business organisation has to take decision. There @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 151 are number of choices available even in a small matter. Suppose a businessman has to transport goods, he has to take a decision about the mode of transportation – whether to send the goods through a truck, tempo, train or by air. He has to choose one among the several alternatives and that alternative should be best suited and economical. It is based on the decision which the businessman has taken. Thus the decision making plays a very significant role in the business. To-day India has a very diverse set of successful business institutions. In the coming years India will probably deliver more premium to a combination of institutional planning with analysed decision taking styles and organizational cultures. It may operate from one end of the spectrum to the other end. Decision making can be broadly divided into two types. They are : (1) Individual decisions (2) Group decisions In small business organisations like sole trading concerns, it is the individual who takes the decision. They are called individual decisions. These decisions are based on the capability of the individual. Decision making by a group of people as in the case of Partnership firms and Board of Directors as in the case of Joint Stock Companies or Co-operative Societies are called Group decisions. Here, a number of people take part in taking a decision. Decision making - importance : Decision making solves many problems in the business organisation. While an appropriate decision can bring profit to the organisation, a wrong decision can result in loss. The following points are to be kept in mind while making decisions. 1) Time factor, 2) experience, 3) wise decision (wisdom), 4) firmness, 5) boldness and 6) clarity. Solving a problem is directly linked with decision. The following factors are to be kept in mind while taking decisions. • Analysing the problem. • Planning of course of action. • Maintaining courage and patience. • Farsightedness. • Ability to take quick and wise decision. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 152 Functional areas of Management : Management is concerned with getting things done through the efforts of others. To get the work done through others, the management has to undertake a number of activities in a systematic manner. These systematic activities are called managerial functions. The Managerial functions may be classified into different areas. Some of them are : (1) Planning (2) Organising (3) Staffing (4) Directing (5) Co-ordinating (6) Controlling. 1. Planning : It is one of the important functional areas of management. It involves the future course of operation for a given period. The process of planning includes determination of organizational objective and formulation of plans, policies, strategies, programmes, procedures and schedules. 2. Organising : It is the process of bringing together the man power and material resources. Some of the material resources are machines and materials. Putting the material resources and man power together into working order to achieve the objectives is the main purpose of the organizing area of managerial function. 3. Staffing : It is the function concerned with the recruitment, selection, placement, training, growth and development of all members of the organization. 4. Directing : It is the area of functional management where instructing, guiding, supervising and leading the people of an organization towards accomplishment of the organizational goals. 5. Co-ordination : It is the harmonious blending of the activities of the different departments for the achievement of the desired goals. 6. Controlling : The main objectives of controlling area are : a) to create an atmosphere of order and discipline in the organization to ensure proper co-ordination of activities. b) to ensure confirmation of actual performance with the pre-determined plans. @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 153 EXERCISES I.

Answer the following questions in a sentence.

1. What is management?

2. What do you mean by decision making?

3. What is individual decision and what is collective decision?

 4. What is the principle of authority and responsibility in principles of management. II. Answer each of the following questions in about four to five sentences.

1. What are the principles of management suggested by Henry Fayol?

 2. What are the functional areas of management?

 3. Write about the authority and responsibility, scalar chain and centralization in principles of management.

 4. What is the need for decision making in management of business?

5. What are the important elements of decision making?

6. What factors are to be kept in mind, while taking a decision?

7. What do you mean by planning and organisation in functional areas of management?

8. How is controlling an important area of managerial function?

 9. What are the main objectives of controling areas? 10. “Directing and co-ordinations are very important functions in business management”. How? III. Activities.

1. Meet a sole trader of your area and request him to give you particulars regarding how he takes decisions, regarding day to-day affairs of his business. 2. Visit a co-operative society near your place and find out the particulars of the meetings to Agenda, Quorum and minutes.

ZOROASTRIANISM Although Zoroastrianism was founded in Persia, it has influenced India. Parsis as they are called, settled in India during Muslim invasion in different periods.

 Parsis are more in number in India compared to the other parts of the world. Their contribution to the economy, army and freedom movement is worth remembering. Zoroastrianism (Parsi religion) was founded by Zarthustra in 6 B.C. Zarathustra was an Iranian prophet and a religious reformer. They worshipped Sun and more similar to the Vedic rituals and practices. The holy book ‘Zend Avestha’ contains Shlokas called “Gatha”. The rituals related to worship is named Yashna(Yajna). They were followed to praise gods. This seems all these concepts came from Sanskrit. The religions Judaism, Islam and Christianity were influenced by Zoroastrianism. With the invasion of Alexander of Macedonia, the religion suffered. They destroyed Zend Avestha. Later it was re-written. Beliefs: Goodness will be victorious over the evil in their competition. Man should choose goodness. Their God was AhurMezda. Fasting, celibacy and cleanliness are some of their practices. CHRISTIANITY The birthplace of Jesus is Bethlehem, 5 kilometers away from Jerusalem in Judea province. He was the only son of the poor couple, Joseph and Mary. Zarathustra @KTBS NOT TO BE REPUBLISHED 4 Not much is known about his early life. Jesus knew Arami

Not much is known about his early life. Jesus knew Aramic and Semetic languages. At this time, the Jews were awaiting the arrival of a Messiah, who would save them from their problems. A person named John had predicted this arrival. John was basically a religious preacher. He used to baptise the people who came to him. Even Jesus was baptised by John. John declared Jesus as the Messiah. Jesus was 30 years at that time. Jesus started travelling through Isreal preaching religious philosophy. Over a period of time, Jews chose Jesus as their religious leader. Jesus had 12 disciples. They are called ‘Apostles’. Peter was the first apostle.

Jesus sympathised with the downtrodden and those who suffered from diseases. He always came forward to alleviate the suffering of the poor. Crucifixion of Christ The Jews considered Jesus as their Messiah and he became very popular. Since Jesus began rejecting the religious dogmas, Jewish fundamentalists started opposing him. Due to all these reasons, when Jesus visited Jerusalem, the Jewish soliders arrested him and handed him over to the Governor of Rome and he ordered crucifixion of Jesus. He was crucified on the hillock of Golgotha by the Roman soldiers. The teachings of Jesus Christ The preachings of Jesus Christ are very simple to follow. They are told in the form of stories or parables. 1. He told people to imagine God as their Father. He also told that all human beings were Children of the God. The concept of God is different from “Brahma” in Sanathana Dharma.

2. He advocated universal brotherhood. 3. He told people to shun hypocritical religious practices. 4. He advised people to repent for their sins and seek forgiveness from the God. 5. He asked people to do unto others what they wanted others to do to them. 6. He equated Service to Man with Service to God. In this manner, his preachings were based on Love, Service and Brotherhood. The Spread of Christianity After the crucifixion of Jesus, his disciples were tortured. Some of them were crucified. During the time of Emperor Constantine, Christianity was adopted as the State Religion. Subsequently, Christianity spread through out Europe. Today, Christian Churches are found through out the world and have a large number of followers. The Bible is their Scripture. ISLAM RELIGION Muhammad, The Prophet is the founder of Islam Religion. He was born at Mecca in C.E.570 Abdulla and Ameena were his parents. His father died a few months before Mohammad’s birth. He lost his mother when he was six year old. Thereafter, he grew up under the care of his uncle, who was basically a trader. He had to travel long distances for his trade. Mohammad used to accompany him during these travels. After some time, Mohammad was employed to service in a rich widow’s house. Later, he married that widow. They had two sons and four daughters.

Mohammad had the habit of introspecting and meditating all alone. He used to meditate in a cave in Mecca. Once, while he was meditating, he heard the voice of an angel. The angel said that Mohammad was the Prophet of God (Allah). Later, Mohammad convinced his family members, relatives and friends that he was truly the Prophet. However, he never referred himself as God, but Prophet of Allah. The rest of his life Mohammad spent preaching the Divine Gospel. These preachings were compiled by his followers and published in the form of a book. Quran is the Scripture of Islam.

The orthodox community of Mecca began to oppose the Prophet. Due to this, Muhammad, the Prophet could not preach in Mecca any more. In the year C.E. 622 he travelled from Mecca to Medina. This journey became popular in history as ‘Hijira’. He settled down for some time in Medina. He brought many small tribes of Arabia together. As a result, his strength doubled. He moved to Mecca again with his followers and after some years, breathed his last there. Philosophy and tenets of Islam (the teachings of Muhammad, the Prophet) : 1. Islam believes in monotheism (worship of one God). Allah is their God and Mohammed, His Prophet. 2. Muhammad, The Prophet taught that there is no death for the soul and that sinners would attract punishment by fire. 3. He laid emphasis on good behaviour. He said that human beings should try to learn forgiveness. The rules and regulations to be followed by every Muslim : 1. Firm belief in one God and Mohammed as his Prophet - Kalima 2. Praying five times daily facing the direction of Kaba - Namaz 3. Fasting during the Ramzan month from sunrise to sunset - Roja 4. Donating one-fourths of their earnings to the poor - Zakat 5. Visiting Mecca at least once in their lifetimes - Haj These five practices are said to be the ‘pillars of Islam’.]

The successors of Muhammad, The Prophet are called ‘Caliphs’. The Caliphs became the religious and political leaders of Islam. Abubakar was the first Caliph